47. These are the six that survived to adulthood. Two others did not.
48. Thyrêt, Between God and Tsar, 134–35.
49. Hughes, Sophia, 37, 40.
50. Ibid., 116–94.
51. Ibid., 224.
3. EMPRESSES AND SERFS, 1695–1855
1. Kollmann, “‘What’s Love,’” 15–32.
2. Hughes, Russia, 191, 190.
3. Ibid., 193.
4. Peter took the title “emperor” in 1721, relegating “tsar” to a secondary position among his titles. His successors followed his precedent.
5. Cruse and Hoogenboom, Memoirs, 15–18.
6. Ibid., 13.
7. Ibid., 152.
8. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:110–46.
9. Madariaga, Russia, 498.
10. Kuxhausen, “Ideal Citizens.”
11. Black, Citizens, 262.
12. Kuxhausen, “Ideal Citizens,” 32–33; Nash, “Educating.”
13. Dashkova, The Memoirs, 34, 36. The titles tsaritsa and tsarevna had fallen out of use in the eighteenth century, having been replaced by empress, velikii kniaz (son of an emperor), and velikaia kniagina (wife of a velikii kniaz or daughter of an emperor). These terms are anglicized as “grand duke” and “grand duchess.”
14. Ibid., 124, 14.
15. Glagoleva, Dream, 36–66.
16. This discussion of property rights is based on Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom.
17. Blackstone’s Commentaries, book 1, chapter 15.
18. Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 113, 116; Marrese, “From Maintenance,” 209–26.
19. Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 5.
20. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnye zapiski,” 271, 261.
21. Glagoleva, Dream, 16–17; Cavender, “Kind Angel,” 391.
22. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnye zapiski,” 259, 278–79.
23. Labzina, Days, 16.
24. Dolgorukaia, “Svoeruchnaia zapiski,” 266; Labzina, Days, 48–49, 99.
25. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 295.
26. Cruse and Hoogenboom, Memoirs, 15, 30–31.
27. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:264; Lincoln, Nicholas I, 157. The portraits described here are those done by Scottish artist Christina Robertson in 1840–41.
28. Wortman, Scenarios, 1:253–69, 333–78.
29. Cavender, “Kind Angel,” 393, 404; Schrader, “Unruly Felons,” 240.
30. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 28.
31. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, 357–96.
32. Friedman, Masculinity, 2–4, 28–36.
33. Wagner, Marriage, 62, 64.
34. Ibid., 62.
35. Freeze, “Bringing Order,” 711–12.
36. The preceding section is based on Wagner, Marriage, 62–81.
37. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 163, 181.
38. Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 78.
39. Ibid., 49.
40. Lindenmeyr, Poverty, 116.
41. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 30.
42. Heldt, Terrible Perfection, 62.
43. Kelly, A History, 105.
44. Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 20–21; Blum, Lord and Peasant, 420. That other category of bondage in Russia, slavery, was abolished in 1723.
45. Until 1762–64, the church also owned serfs; thereafter the church serfs became state peasants.
46. Mikhnevich, “Russkaia zhenshchina,” 236; Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom, 191; Turgenev, The Hunting Sketches, 157–75.
47. Worobec, “Masculinity,” 76–93.
48. Bohac, “Widows,” 109.
49. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 266.
50. Kaiser and Marker, Reinterpreting, 293.
51. Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 165.
52. Labzina, Days, 7–26; Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 244–46, 282–310. Many thanks to Steven Grant for his comments on this paragraph.
53. Ryan, The Bathhouse, 177.
54. Kaiser, “The Poor,” 138–42.
55. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 33–34, 35.
4. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION, 1855–1914
1. R. Johnson, Peasant, 28, 31; Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 135.
2. Bisha et al., Russian Women, 42.
3. Turgenev, On the Eve, 69.
4. Lebedev and Solodovnikov, Vladimir Vasil’evich, 12.
5. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 29.
6. Ibid., 32; Anderson and Zinsser, A History, 1:186, 188.
7. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 72.
8. Ibid., 69.
9. Anderson and Zinsser, A History, 1:188.
10. Johanson, Women’s Struggle, 5.
11. Clyman and Vowles, Russia, 167.
12. Ibid., 184.
13. McVay, Envisioning, 128; Bolt, Feminist Ferment, 77–78.
14. Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, 15–16.
15. McNeal, “Women,” 144.
16. Stites, Women’s Liberation Movement, 142.
17. Engel, Mothers and Daughters; Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, 69.
18. Subtelny, Ukraine, 265.
19. Worobec, Peasant Russia, 62–70.
20. Ibid., 69–70; Farnsworth, “The Litigious Daughter-in-Law,” 91, 94–98; Freeze, “Profane Narratives,” 149.
21. Farnsworth, “The Litigious Daughter-in-Law,” 91; Wagner, Marriage, 61; Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia, Village Life, 163.
22. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 279, 312.
23. Ramer, “Childbirth,” 107–15; Ransel, “Infant-Care Cultures,” 117–18, 123–31.
24. Ramer, “Childbirth,” 107.
25. Pallot, “Women’s Domestic Industries,” 179; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 61–67.
26. Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 3.
27. The foregoing paragraphs are based on Ransel, Mothers of Misery.
28. Blobaum, “The ‘Woman Question’”; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 37.
29. Pallot, “Women’s Domestic Industries,” 168.
30. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, 379.
31. Calculated from data in Engel, Between the Fields and the City, 67. Warsaw statistics from Nietyksza, “The Vocational Activities,” 145.
32. Glickman, Russian Factory Women, 60; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 164; McDermid and Hillyar, Women, 91.