Catholicism, 56, 198; and abortion, 295; and differences with Orthodoxy, 9; gender ideas of, 10–11, 34; in Lithuania, 177, 297; marriage law of, 13–14, 93, 109; religious orders of, 40, 41, 160, 161; and witchcraft, 42
Caucasus, 215, 240, 251; abortion in, 225, 295; Communist reforms in, 226; economic conditions in (1953– 91), 267; economic conditions (after 1991), 287, 310; gender concerns after 1991, 293; politics of (after 1991), 286, 287, 292; Russian expansion into, xiii, 108, 156, 200; women as preservers of tradition in, xv, 273–74, 275; women in (1953–91), 272–73; women in (after 1991), 289, 296, 304–305, 307. See also Armenia; Azerbaijan
Cavender, Mary Wells, 81, 88
Central Asia, xiii, 228, 233; abortion in, 225, 295; birthrate after 1991, 290;
Communist reforms in, 200–201, 207, 226; economic conditions in (1953–91), 267; economic conditions in (after 1991), 27–88, 310; expansion into, 108, 156; politics of (after 1991), 286, 292, 301; reaction to collectivization in, 215, 216. See also Tajikistan; Uzbekistan; Unveiling Campaign
Central Asia, women in: 1930s, 226; 1953–91, 272–73; after 1991, 288, 289, 296, 307; women’s activism in, 181; women as preservers of tradition in, xv, 273–324, 275
Central Committee of the Communist Party, 190, 192, 262
Central Europe, 109; importation of gender ideas from, 5, 64, 317; women’s migration to, after 1991, 289
Central Washington University, 313
chadrah, 227
Chaikovskii Circle, 125
charity, 93–94. See also philanthropy, women in
Charlotte of Prussia. See Alexandra, Empress, wife of Nicholas I
“Charter to the Nobility,” 73
Chechens, 251, 303
Chechnya, war with rebels in, 293, 302–303, 305
Chekhov, Anton, 233
Chekhova, Maria, 170
Chernenko, Konstantin, 277
Chernigov, 19
Chernyshevskii, Nikolai, 115, 118–19, 123, 124, 126
Chicago, 318
childbirth: practices among Rus peasants, 4; among Muscovite peasants, 29; under serfdom, 104, 106; after Emancipation, 130; in 1930s, 216; in 1970s, 272
childcare, 178, 193, 225
childcare, Soviet programs of: 1917–30, 175; in 1920s, 195; in 1930s, 223; in World War II, 247–48, 252; in postwar period, 259, 270, 282, 286, 291, 295
Children of Chernobyl, 308
China, 15, 48; Nicholas II’s foreign policy toward, 114; propagation of gender values in Qing period of, 65; Soviet program of women’s emancipation in, 262
Chinese Communist Party: and cult of domesticity, 85; and Soviet program of women’s emancipation, 196, 202
Christianity: conversion of Rus to, 2, 4, 9–12, 23; conversion of Siberians to, 156; in family life, 34; impact on gender ideas, 10–12; Jewish conversion to, 153; schismatic activity of women in, 53–54; syncretism with pagan beliefs of, 106–107; women’s role in conversion to, xviii, 9–10, 16, 25, 53
Chukchi, 46, 47
Church Statute of Prince Iaroslav, 14
cigarette workers, women as, 131, 136, 142
cities, 1, 2, 5, 15, 78, 89, 170, 214, 238; elsewhere in Europe, 93, 101, 107; gender ideas in, 150–51; growth of (after 1860), 112, 152; impact of, on countryside after 1860, 127–28, 129, 131, 133–34, 203; migration to, 113, 132–33, 217, 272, 273, 288
cities, women’s activism in: 1695–1855, 93–94; 1890–1914, 112, 116, 124, 125, 155, 169–77, 179; during World War I, 180–82; 1917–30, 183–84; in 1930s, 223; 1953–91, 4, 283; after 1991, 289, 295, 303–309
cities, women’s lives in: 900–1462, 5, 17; in Muscovy, 26, 29–31; 1700– 1860, 94, 107–108, 111; 1860–1914, 116, 131–32, 134–44, 150, 152, 155, 156; during World War I, 181–82; 1917–21, 192–93; 1920s, 206; 1930s, 212, 218, 220–21; during World War II, 212, 248; 1952–82, 262, 227, 272; after 1991, 287–88, 289, 310
civic organizations, 304–309
Civil War, 191–94
clerical workers, women as, 149, 193, 213, 233, 296
Cold War, xviii, 255, 258, 318
Collection of the Laws of the Russian Empire, The, 90–91
collective farms, 287; establishment of, 214–15; in Siberia, 273, 288; women workers on, 217–18, 244, 246, 250, 271
collectivization. See collective farms
Commissariat of Education, 191
Commissariat of Labor, 191
Committee of Soldiers’ Mothers, 284, 305
commune. See peasant commune
Communist Party of the Soviet Union: in 1920s, 194; 1953–92, 253, 259–60; gender ideas of, 195–96, 206–208, 221–23; policies toward women of, xvii, 159, 191, 195–96, 209–10, 258–60, 279; structure of, 191–92; women in, 141, 192, 193–94, 206, 218, 255, 256, 262, 296. See also Bolshevik Party; Komsomol; Terror, the; Unveiling Campaign
Congress of People’s Deputies, 278, 280
Congressional Medal of Honor, 240
Constantine, Grand Duke, 84
Constantine, Roman Emperor, 8
Constituent Assembly, 182, 184, 329n40
consumer goods, availability of: during World War I, 181; 1930–53, 212, 221, 232, 246, 249; 1953–91, 253, 254, 258, 263, 267, 268, 269; after 1991, 310
consumer goods, selling of, by women after 1991, 289
consumerism, 150, 263–64, 266
convents: 900–1462, 10; 1462–1695, 40–41, 53, 55, 62; closure of (in 1929), 210; resurgence of (in 19th century), 160–61; resurgence of (after 1985), 283, 287
cooks, women as, 138, 180, 234, 239
cooperatives, women’s, 204
cosmonauts, women as, 255, 256–58
Cossacks, 169, 184; 1462–1695, 27, 45, 46, 47, 48, 322n3
cottage industry, 113, 131
Council of People’s Commissars, 183
courts: in Rus period, 12; 1462–1695, 27, 36, 43, 44; 1700–1860, 79–80, 98, 109; 1860–1914, 113, 127, 128–29; 1917–28, 193, 203; 1930–53, 225; 1953–91, 259, 265
courtship, 102–103, 113
couverture, doctrine of, 79
crime: definitions of, in Russian law codes, 14, 43, 91; in 19th-century cities, 94
crime, committed by women: 1860– 1914, 135, 142–44; in 1920s, 205, 206; in 1930s, 229, 232; during World War II, 52; after 1991, 303. See also prostitution; witchcraft
Crimea, 177, 230, 279; annexation of, 108
Crimean Tatars, 251
Crimean War, 84, 109–110
cult of domesticity: origins of, 82–83; under Nicholas I, 85–90, 96, 111; 1855–1914, 117, 149–51, 153, 155, 200; in 1930s, 211–12, 222; after 1991, 293. See also femininity, ideals of; masculinity, ideals of
Curie, Marie, 165
Curie, Pierre, 165
Czechoslovakia, 258, 278
dachas, 288
dairying, 117
Danilova, Maria, 55
Danilovichi, 16
Dashkov, Mikhail, 76
Dashkov, Pavel, 76
Dashkova, Ekaterina, 75–78, 80, 98, 100
daycare. See childcare Decembrists, 84
Degetereva, Nadezhda, 180
dentists, 148
Department of the Institutions of the Empress Maria, 94
Derevlians, 9
Devil. See Satan Diaghilevs, 115
diocesan schools, 117
dissidents, 276–77
division of labor, gendered: among the Rus, 4, 5; 1462–1695, 28, 32–35; under serfdom, 105, 107; 1855–1914, 141–42; 1953–1991, 267–69, 275; after 1991, 287, 290–91. See also double shift
divorce, 109; in Rus law, 13–14; in Russian law, 64, 91–92, 122; 1855–1914, 151; in Soviet law, 191, 200, 203, 207, 225, 248–49, 259. See also marriage
divorce rate: in Soviet Union, 206, 209, 217, 248, 272; after 1991, 292.