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Catholicism, 56, 198; and abortion, 295; and differences with Orthodoxy, 9; gender ideas of, 10–11, 34; in Lithuania, 177, 297; marriage law of, 13–14, 93, 109; religious orders of, 40, 41, 160, 161; and witchcraft, 42

Caucasus, 215, 240, 251; abortion in, 225, 295; Communist reforms in, 226; economic conditions in (1953– 91), 267; economic conditions (after 1991), 287, 310; gender concerns after 1991, 293; politics of (after 1991), 286, 287, 292; Russian expansion into, xiii, 108, 156, 200; women as preservers of tradition in, xv, 273–74, 275; women in (1953–91), 272–73; women in (after 1991), 289, 296, 304–305, 307. See also Armenia; Azerbaijan

Cavender, Mary Wells, 81, 88

Central Asia, xiii, 228, 233; abortion in, 225, 295; birthrate after 1991, 290;

Communist reforms in, 200–201, 207, 226; economic conditions in (1953–91), 267; economic conditions in (after 1991), 27–88, 310; expansion into, 108, 156; politics of (after 1991), 286, 292, 301; reaction to collectivization in, 215, 216. See also Tajikistan; Uzbekistan; Unveiling Campaign

Central Asia, women in: 1930s, 226; 1953–91, 272–73; after 1991, 288, 289, 296, 307; women’s activism in, 181; women as preservers of tradition in, xv, 273–324, 275

Central Committee of the Communist Party, 190, 192, 262

Central Europe, 109; importation of gender ideas from, 5, 64, 317; women’s migration to, after 1991, 289

Central Washington University, 313

chadrah, 227

Chaikovskii Circle, 125

charity, 93–94. See also philanthropy, women in

Charlotte of Prussia. See Alexandra, Empress, wife of Nicholas I

“Charter to the Nobility,” 73

Chechens, 251, 303

Chechnya, war with rebels in, 293, 302–303, 305

Chekhov, Anton, 233

Chekhova, Maria, 170

Chernenko, Konstantin, 277

Chernigov, 19

Chernyshevskii, Nikolai, 115, 118–19, 123, 124, 126

Chicago, 318

childbirth: practices among Rus peasants, 4; among Muscovite peasants, 29; under serfdom, 104, 106; after Emancipation, 130; in 1930s, 216; in 1970s, 272

childcare, 178, 193, 225

childcare, Soviet programs of: 1917–30, 175; in 1920s, 195; in 1930s, 223; in World War II, 247–48, 252; in postwar period, 259, 270, 282, 286, 291, 295

Children of Chernobyl, 308

China, 15, 48; Nicholas II’s foreign policy toward, 114; propagation of gender values in Qing period of, 65; Soviet program of women’s emancipation in, 262

Chinese Communist Party: and cult of domesticity, 85; and Soviet program of women’s emancipation, 196, 202

Christianity: conversion of Rus to, 2, 4, 9–12, 23; conversion of Siberians to, 156; in family life, 34; impact on gender ideas, 10–12; Jewish conversion to, 153; schismatic activity of women in, 53–54; syncretism with pagan beliefs of, 106–107; women’s role in conversion to, xviii, 9–10, 16, 25, 53

Chukchi, 46, 47

Church Statute of Prince Iaroslav, 14

cigarette workers, women as, 131, 136, 142

cities, 1, 2, 5, 15, 78, 89, 170, 214, 238; elsewhere in Europe, 93, 101, 107; gender ideas in, 150–51; growth of (after 1860), 112, 152; impact of, on countryside after 1860, 127–28, 129, 131, 133–34, 203; migration to, 113, 132–33, 217, 272, 273, 288

cities, women’s activism in: 1695–1855, 93–94; 1890–1914, 112, 116, 124, 125, 155, 169–77, 179; during World War I, 180–82; 1917–30, 183–84; in 1930s, 223; 1953–91, 4, 283; after 1991, 289, 295, 303–309

cities, women’s lives in: 900–1462, 5, 17; in Muscovy, 26, 29–31; 1700– 1860, 94, 107–108, 111; 1860–1914, 116, 131–32, 134–44, 150, 152, 155, 156; during World War I, 181–82; 1917–21, 192–93; 1920s, 206; 1930s, 212, 218, 220–21; during World War II, 212, 248; 1952–82, 262, 227, 272; after 1991, 287–88, 289, 310

civic organizations, 304–309

Civil War, 191–94

clerical workers, women as, 149, 193, 213, 233, 296

Cold War, xviii, 255, 258, 318

Collection of the Laws of the Russian Empire, The, 90–91

collective farms, 287; establishment of, 214–15; in Siberia, 273, 288; women workers on, 217–18, 244, 246, 250, 271

collectivization. See collective farms

Commissariat of Education, 191

Commissariat of Labor, 191

Committee of Soldiers’ Mothers, 284, 305

commune. See peasant commune

Communist Party of the Soviet Union: in 1920s, 194; 1953–92, 253, 259–60; gender ideas of, 195–96, 206–208, 221–23; policies toward women of, xvii, 159, 191, 195–96, 209–10, 258–60, 279; structure of, 191–92; women in, 141, 192, 193–94, 206, 218, 255, 256, 262, 296. See also Bolshevik Party; Komsomol; Terror, the; Unveiling Campaign

Congress of People’s Deputies, 278, 280

Congressional Medal of Honor, 240

Constantine, Grand Duke, 84

Constantine, Roman Emperor, 8

Constituent Assembly, 182, 184, 329n40

consumer goods, availability of: during World War I, 181; 1930–53, 212, 221, 232, 246, 249; 1953–91, 253, 254, 258, 263, 267, 268, 269; after 1991, 310

consumer goods, selling of, by women after 1991, 289

consumerism, 150, 263–64, 266

convents: 900–1462, 10; 1462–1695, 40–41, 53, 55, 62; closure of (in 1929), 210; resurgence of (in 19th century), 160–61; resurgence of (after 1985), 283, 287

cooks, women as, 138, 180, 234, 239

cooperatives, women’s, 204

cosmonauts, women as, 255, 256–58

Cossacks, 169, 184; 1462–1695, 27, 45, 46, 47, 48, 322n3

cottage industry, 113, 131

Council of People’s Commissars, 183

courts: in Rus period, 12; 1462–1695, 27, 36, 43, 44; 1700–1860, 79–80, 98, 109; 1860–1914, 113, 127, 128–29; 1917–28, 193, 203; 1930–53, 225; 1953–91, 259, 265

courtship, 102–103, 113

couverture, doctrine of, 79

crime: definitions of, in Russian law codes, 14, 43, 91; in 19th-century cities, 94

crime, committed by women: 1860– 1914, 135, 142–44; in 1920s, 205, 206; in 1930s, 229, 232; during World War II, 52; after 1991, 303. See also prostitution; witchcraft

Crimea, 177, 230, 279; annexation of, 108

Crimean Tatars, 251

Crimean War, 84, 109–110

cult of domesticity: origins of, 82–83; under Nicholas I, 85–90, 96, 111; 1855–1914, 117, 149–51, 153, 155, 200; in 1930s, 211–12, 222; after 1991, 293. See also femininity, ideals of; masculinity, ideals of

Curie, Marie, 165

Curie, Pierre, 165

Czechoslovakia, 258, 278

dachas, 288

dairying, 117

Danilova, Maria, 55

Danilovichi, 16

Dashkov, Mikhail, 76

Dashkov, Pavel, 76

Dashkova, Ekaterina, 75–78, 80, 98, 100

daycare. See childcare Decembrists, 84

Degetereva, Nadezhda, 180

dentists, 148

Department of the Institutions of the Empress Maria, 94

Derevlians, 9

Devil. See Satan Diaghilevs, 115

diocesan schools, 117

dissidents, 276–77

division of labor, gendered: among the Rus, 4, 5; 1462–1695, 28, 32–35; under serfdom, 105, 107; 1855–1914, 141–42; 1953–1991, 267–69, 275; after 1991, 287, 290–91. See also double shift

divorce, 109; in Rus law, 13–14; in Russian law, 64, 91–92, 122; 1855–1914, 151; in Soviet law, 191, 200, 203, 207, 225, 248–49, 259. See also marriage

divorce rate: in Soviet Union, 206, 209, 217, 248, 272; after 1991, 292.