Williams, Harold, 319, 368–9
Wilno/Vilnius, 267, 697; strikes (1893), 147
Wilson, President Woodrow, 574n, 651–2, 704, 816
Wilton, Robert, 319, 637n
Winter Palace, St Petersburg, 3, 4, 65, 122, 138, 144, 173, 176, 178, 191, 192, 213, 219, 251, 270, 277, 328, 340, 345, 348, 437, 438, 446, 450, 451, 455, 456, 457, 478, 479, 481, 482, 484, 485, 493, 530, 739; assault and seizure of (October 1917), 468–9, 491–2, 494, 498; opening of State Duma in (1906), 213–14
Witte, Count Sergei, 8, 17, 21, 22, 23, 35, 41, 68, 82, 113, 175, 178n, 179, 186, 191–2, 194–5, 197, 201, 214, 217, 220, 242
Women, 181, 299–300, 308, 368, 647, 740–2; in peasant society, 85, 96–7, 109, 362
Women’s Battalion of Death, 413, 419, 486, 488
Women’s Union for Equality, 181
Workers, 88, 110–21, 173 passim, 205, 297–8, 300, 301, 308–9, 311, 319, 358–9, 367–71, 396, 457, 461, 493–4, 496, 590, 610, 648, 674, 723, 724, 735, 736, 740, 744; class-and self-identity, 112, 114, 115-17, 118, 301, 523; conditions of, 43, 111–12, 112–13, 113–14, 605; and Marxism, 119-21, 147–8; in 1905 Revolution, 180, 186, 187–8, 189–90, 199–200; strikes and protests, 114–15, 232, 275, 297, 300–1, 302, 367–8, 371, 448, 462, 580–1, 624, 626, 631, 666–7, 730–1, 758–60, 767; study circles and reading of, 117–19; ties with the village, 110–11, 610–11
Workers’ Control, Decree on, 461n
Workers’ Opposition, 731, 750, 764–5, 767, 771, 793, 794, 795
World Literature (Gorky’s publishing house), 606, 737, 783–4
Woytinsky, V. S., 429
Wrangel, General Baron Peter, 293n, 564, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 666, 675, 679–80, 681, 698, 702, 716–20, 751, 753, 817
Yagoda, G. G., 822
Yakovlev, Vasilii, 637–8 and n
Yalta, 213, 527
Yamburg, 672
Yanushkevich, General Nikolai, 259, 269
Yaroslavl’, 5, 147 and n, 642 and n
Yenisei, 658
Yermolenko, Lieutenant D., 432–3
Yoffe, Adolf, 460, 540, 542, 548, 695–6
Young Pioneers, 748
Yudenich, General Nikolai, 663, 671–5, 681
Yurovsky, Yakov, 640
Yusupov, Prince Felix, 32, 289–90
Yuzovka, 665
Zaichnevsky, Petr, Young Russia, 131–2
Zamyatin, Yevgeny, 606, 785; The Cave, 603–4; We, 744, 745
Zangezur, 713
Zarudny, A. A., 205n
Zasulich, Vera, 132–3, 137–8, 150, 152
Zavoiko, Vasilii, 445, 446, 559
Zemgor, 336, 779
Zemskii sobor, 187
Zemstvo Union, 270, 271, 272, 274, 354
Zemstvos, 39, 47, 50, 51–3, 54, 159, 161, 164–5, 228, 573, 579, 580, 718; National Zemstvo Assembly, 171–3, 181; Third Element, 52, 164
Zenzinov, Viktor, 324, 329–30, 498, 578, 585, 586
Zhelezniakov, A. G., 516, 535
Zhenotdel, 741
Zhordania, Noi, 714
Zhukov, Marshal Georgi, 264, 670
Zimmerwald Conference (1915), 294–5
Zinoviev, Grigorii, 141n, 297, 391, 392, 396, 397, 425, 427, 434, 544, 548, 593, 628, 639, 648, 673, 682, 683, 684, 699, 701, 704, 727, 731, 760, 767, 768, 770, 795, 802n; enmity between Gorky and, 783; insurrection opposed by, 471, 472 and n, 476, 477, 800; opposition to Stalin (1926), 818; resigns from Central Committee, 499, 511; show trial (1936), 822; sides with Stalin against Trotsky, 795, 800, 804
Zinoviev, Lilina, 743
Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 606
Zubatov, S. V., 174
Zurich, 323, 385
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Copyright © Orlando Figes, 2017, 2014, 1996
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First published in Great Britain in 1996 by Jonathan Cape
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First published by The Bodley Head in 2014
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Maps by James Sinclair
Chapter 1
fn1 Bertrand Russell used a similar idea when, in an attempt to explain the Russian Revolution to Lady Ottoline Morrell, he remarked that, terrible though Bolshevik despotism was, it seemed the right sort of government for Russia: ‘If you ask yourself how Dostoevsky’s characters should be governed, you will understand.’
fn2 After more than fifty years in storage the statue was returned to the city’s streets in 1994. Ironically, the horse now stands in front of the former Lenin Museum, where it has taken the place of the armoured car which, in April 1917, brought Lenin from the Finland Station.
fn3 There used to be a nice Soviet joke that the Supreme Soviet had decided to award the Order of the Red Banner to Nicholas II posthumously ‘for his services to the revolution’. The last Tsar’s achievement, it was said, was to have brought about a revolutionary situation.
fn4 The full titles of Nicholas II were: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias; Tsar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Poland, Siberia, the Tauric Chersonese and Georgia; Lord of Pskov; Grand Prince of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland; Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogatia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugria, Perm, Viatka, Bulgaria and other lands; Lord and Grand Prince of Nizhnyi Novgorod and Chernigov; Ruler of Riazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl’, Belo-Ozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl and all the Northern Lands; Lord and Sovereign of the Iverian, Kartalinian and Kabardinian lands and of the Armenian provinces; Hereditary Lord and Suzerain of the Circassian Princes and Highland Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan; Heir to the Throne of Norway; Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, the Dithmarschen and Oldenburg.
fn5 It was common for fellow villagers to address one another by nicknames describing their characteristics: ‘Clever’, ‘Calf’, ‘Wolf’, ‘Heart’, and so on.
Chapter 2
fn1 Under the terms of the Emancipation the serfs were forced to pay for their newly acquired land through a mortgage arrangement with the state, which paid the gentry for it in full and directly. Thus, in effect, the serfs bought their freedom by paying off their masters’ debts.
fn2 Semenov is pronounced Semyónov and Semen is Semyón.
fn3 The difference between Rus and Rossiia was similar to that between ‘England’ and ‘Britain’.
fn4 Unlike their Catholic counterparts, Russian Orthodox priests were allowed to marry. Only the monastic clergy were not.
fn5 The Old Believers rejected the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon during the 1660s as well as the government that enforced them. Fleeing persecution, most of them settled in the remote areas of Siberia, where they remain to this day. At the turn of the century there were estimated to be as many as eighteen million Old Believers. The other main religious sects, closer in spirit to Evangelicalism, were the Stundists (Baptists), the Dukhobortsy (‘Fighters for the Spirit’) and the Molokane (Milk-Drinkers). They had about one million followers between them. Many of these sects had a radical tradition of dissent, which is both explained by and helps to explain their persecution by the state.
fn6 When one compares this with the respect and deference shown by the peasants of Catholic Europe towards their priests then one begins to understand why peasant Russia had a revolution and, say, peasant Spain a counter-revolution.