Citation Information
Article Title: Ancient Egypt
Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published: 28 February 2019
URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt
Access Date: August 16, 2019
Additional Reading From prehistory to the Second Intermediate Period
The most-detailed presentation of Egyptian history, with full bibliographies arranged by subject, is the multivolume Cambridge Ancient History, though vol. 1 and 2 no longer reflect current knowledge. More recent overviews are presented in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (2003); and Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (1992; originally published in French, 1988). A more anthropological perspective is found in Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, 2nd ed. (2003). Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, and Wolhart Westendorf (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie (1975– ), is the basic reference work in Egyptology, of which 6 vol. had appeared by 1986 with an additional volume of corrections and indexes by Wolfgang Helck published in 1992.
Michael A. Hoffman, Egypt Before the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Foundations of Egyptian Civilization (1979, reissued 1984); and Béatrix Midant-Reynes, The Prehistory of Egypt from the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs (2000; originally published in French, 1992), are comprehensive general works on prehistory; while Lech Krzyżaniak, Early Farming Cultures on the Lower Nile: The Predynastic Period in Egypt (1977), focuses on the transition to agriculture and on Lower Egypt.
General studies include Cyril Aldred, The Egyptians, rev. ed. (1984); and John Ruffle, Heritage of the Pharaohs: An Introduction to Egyptian Archaeology (1977); as well as other works cited below under the specific periods on which they focus. General histories include B.G. Trigger et al., Ancient Egypt: A Social History (1983), containing four essays on the main periods, concentrating on relations with Africa and including valuable bibliographies; and Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (1961), a personal history, notable for the use made of ancient Egyptian texts. William W. Hallo and William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History (1971), is a reliable brief introduction; and Étienne Drioton and Jacques Vandier, L’Égypte: des origines à la conquête d’Alexandre, 4th ed. (1962, reprinted 1984), remains valuable for its critical discussions.
A detailed discussion of various historical periods can be found in Toby A.H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt (2001; originally published, 1999); Jean Vercoutter, L’Égypte et la vallée du Niclass="underline" tome 1, des origines à la fin de l’Ancien Empire 12000–2000 av. J.C. (1992); and Claude Vandersleyen, L’Égypte et la vallée du Niclass="underline" tome 2, de la fin de l’Ancien Empire à la fin du Nouvel Empire (1995). John A. Wilson, The Burden of Egypt: An Interpretation of Ancient Egyptian Culture (1951, reprinted 1965), is a selective historical study. William C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, 2 vol. (1953–59), is a detailed cultural history of Egypt to the end of the 20th dynasty, based on the collections in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
Wolfgang Helck, Geschichte des alten Ägypten (1968, reprinted 1981), is still the best general history; his Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr., 2nd ed. (1971), is the fundamental work on foreign relations, and his Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Ägypten im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend vor Chr. (1975) covers institutions and economics. Rolf Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten: Studien zur astronomischen und technischen Chronologie Altägyptens (1985), is a vital chronological study for the 2nd and 1st millennia bce; its dates are adopted in this article with minor variations.
John Baines and Jaromír Málek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (1980), is a concise geographically oriented survey. Hermann Kees, Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography (1961, reprinted 1977; originally published in German, 2nd ed., 1958; 3rd German ed., 1977), studies a number of major sites in depth. Karl W. Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology (1976), is a useful discussion of geographic and environmental conditions and their relation to the development of ancient Egyptian civilization.
Claude Vandersleyen et al., Das alte Ägypten (1975), is the most comprehensive survey of Egyptian art. W. Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, rev. ed., edited by William Kelly Simpson (1981), is an excellent general account; and, for the Old Kingdom, Smith’s History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom, 2nd ed. (1949), is still a fundamental source.
Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, 3 vol. (1973–80), offers an excellent collection of texts in translation, covering the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms and the Late Period. A smaller selection of readings is available in William Kelly Simpson (ed.), The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry, new ed. (1973); while James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. (1969), contains a wide selection of Egyptian material in translation.
Studies of administration include Klaus Baer, Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom (1960, reprinted 1974); to which Nigel Strudwick, The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (1985), adds a vast amount of detail. Wolfgang Helck, Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reichs (1958), with a separately published index volume (1975), is the basic work on the succeeding periods. From the New Kingdom to 332 bce
The rise of the New Kingdom is treated in Jürgen Von Beckerath, Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten (1964). Donald B. Redford, History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies (1967); and Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (1996), include a reevaluation of Hatshepsut. An informative account of the New Kingdom empire at its height is David O’Connor and Eric H. Cline (eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign (1998). For the controversial Amarna period, Rolf Krauss, Das Ende der Amarnazeit: Beitr. zur Geschichte u. Chronologie d. Neuen Reiches (1978); and Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten, the Heretic King (1984), offer strongly contrasting interpretations. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (1988), is a good collection of the overall evidence for the period; and inscriptions of the time are translated by William J. Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt (1995).