Roman law, though traditional in content, was also deeply influenced by Greek dialectic. For centuries the law had been passed down orally by pontifical priests. It emerged as an intellectual discipline only in the late republic, when men who saw themselves as legal specialists began to write treatises aimed at organizing existing law into a system, defining principles and concepts, and then applying those principles systematically. Quintus Mucius Scaevola was a pivotal figure: a pontifex in the traditional role, he published the first systematic legal treatise, De iure civili, in the 80s. Cicero credited his contemporary Servius Sulpicius Rufus with being the jurist who transformed law into a discipline (ars).
The decisive events of the late republic stimulated the writing of history. The first extant historical works in Latin (rather than in Greek) date from this period: Sallust’s Bellum Iugurtinum (Iugurthine War) and Bellum Catilinae (Catilinarian Conspiracy) and Caesar’s memoirs about his Gallic and civil wars. The rapid changes also prompted antiquarian studies as Roman senators looked back to archaic institutions and religious rituals of the distant past to legitimize or criticize the present. Varro’s 41 books (now lost) on Antiquitates terum humanarum et divinarum (“Antiquities of things human and divine”) were influential in establishing the traditions of early Rome for future generations. Philosophy and poetry
Philosophy and poetry were suitable as pastimes for senators; few, however, were as serious about philosophy as the younger Cato and Cicero. Even Cicero’s philosophical works were not technical treatises by Greek standards; rather, they were presented as dialogues among leading senators in their leisure. Similarly, Lucretius’ De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things; 50s) offered, in verse, a nontechnical explanation of Epicureanism. The technical philosophical works were written by humbler men and are now lost. A survey of their names and titles, however, shows that stoicism was not yet the dominant philosophical school it later became; more in evidence were the Epicureans, peripatetics, and academics. There also were revivals of Aristotelian and Pythagorean studies in this period.
The best-known poets of the late republican and civil war periods came from well-to-do Italian families. Catullus from Verona (c. 84–c. 54) had a reputation as doctus (learned) for his exquisitely crafted poems full of literary allusions in the Alexandrian style. Far from cumbersome, however, were many of his short, witty poems that challenged traditional Roman mores and deflated senatorial pretensions. Rome’s greatest poets, Virgil (70–19) and Horace (65–8), were born during the republic, came of age during the civil wars, and survived to celebrate the victory of their patron, Augustus. Virgil’s Eclogues one and nine, written during the civil wars, poignantly evoke the suffering of the upheaval that ironically inspired Rome’s highest intellectual and artistic achievements. Richard P. Saller The Early Roman Empire (31 bc–ad 193) The consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians The establishment of the principate under Augustus
Actium left Octavian the master of the Roman world. This supremacy, successfully maintained until his death more than 40 years later, made him the first of the Roman emperors. Suicide removed Antony and Cleopatra and their potential menace in 30 bc, and the annexation of Egypt with its Ptolemaic treasure brought financial independence. With these reassurances Octavian could begin the task of reconstruction.
Roman emperors* *For a list of the Eastern emperors after the fall of Rome, see Byzantine Empire. Augustus (Augustus Caesar) 27 BC–AD 14 Tiberius (Tiberius Caesar Augustus) 14–37 Caligula (Gaius Caesar Germanicus) 37–41 Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) 41–54 Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) 54–68 Galba (Servius Galba Caesar Augustus) 68–69 Otho (Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus) 69 Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius) 69 Vespasian (Caesar Vespasianus Augustus) 69–79 Titus (Titus Vespasianus Augustus) 79–81 Domitian (Caesar Domitianus Augustus) 81–96 Nerva (Nerva Caesar Augustus) 96–98 Trajan (Caesar Divi Nervae Filius Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus) 98–117 Hadrian (Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus) 117–138 Antoninus Pius (Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius) 138–161 Marcus Aurelius (Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) 161–180 Lucius Verus (Lucius Aurelius Verus) 161–169 Commodus (Caesar Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus) 177–192 Pertinax (Publius Helvius Pertinax) 193 Didius Severus Julianus (Marcus Didius Severus Julianus) 193 Septimius Severus (Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax) 193–211 Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus) 198–217 Septimius Geta (Publius Septimius Geta) 209–212 Macrinus (Caesar Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus Augustus) 217–218 Elagabalus (Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) 218–222 Alexander Severus (Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander) 222–235 Maximinus (Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus) 235–238 Gordian I (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus) 238 Gordian II (Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus) 238 Pupienus Maximus (Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus) 238 Balbinus (Decius Caelius Calvinus Balbinus) 238 Gordian III (Marcus Antonius Gordianus) 238–244 Philip (Marcus Julius Philippus) 244–249 Decius (Gaius Messius Quintus Trianus Decius) 249–251 Hostilian (Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus) 251 Gallus (Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus) 251–253 Aemilian (Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus) 253 Valerian (Publius Licinius Valerianus) 253–260 Gallienus (Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus) 253–268 Claudius (II) Gothicus (Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus) 268–270 Quintillus (Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus) 269–270 Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus) 270–275 Tacitus (Marcus Claudius Tacitus) 275–276 Florian (Marcus Annius Florianus) 276 Probus (Marcus Aurelius Probus) 276–282 Carus (Marcus Aurelius Carus) 282–283 Carinus (Marcus Aurelius Carinus) 283–285 Numerian (Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus) 283–284 Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus) East only 284–305 Maximian (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus) West only 286–305