With only about 36 works confirmed as his, Johannes Vermeer’s domestic interior scenes of the bourgeoisie were nonetheless fairly successful during his lifetime. He was largely forgotten until the middle of the 19th century, when he was “discovered” by a French writer. Since then, he has been acknowledged as one of the greatest artists of the Dutch golden age.
Little is known for certain about Vermeer’s life and career. Born in 1632 in Delft, his father was a silk-weaver, a part-time picture dealer and later, an innkeeper. It is thought that Johannes, or Jan, may have been apprenticed to Leonaert Bramer (1596–1674) or Carel Fabritius (1622–54), both respected artists in Delft. Fabritius had been one of Rembrandt’s best pupils, but he died young.
Whoever taught him, in 1653, at the age of 21, Vermeer was admitted to the Guild of Saint Luke, which meant he had trained for the obligatory six years with a master recognized by the guild. His early works included history paintings inspired by Caravaggio’s style (he probably saw work by the Italian master’s followers in Utrecht). By the late 1650s, he was working on genre subjects, which were popular in Delft at the time. It is clear that Vermeer was influenced by Pieter de Hooch’s light-filled, meticulous interior views.
During the 1660s, Vermeer became extremely successful locally and was elected as dean of his guild in 1662–3 and 1670–1. His style gradually became sharper and his ability to render natural light in carefully arranged compositions was unmatched. His work was similar to other Dutch painters’ interiors, but far more delicate and lustrous. Vermeer worked painstakingly slowly and carefully, using bright colors and expensive pigments to create hushed, atmospheric scenes bathed in silvery light. Viewers are drawn into his pictures by the careful placing of objects and clearly defined architectural spaces. Many of his paintings seem to sparkle—a result of the tiny, spherical dots of thick, opaque paint that he placed across the canvases to suggest highlights. These are referred to as pointillés, and they were applied to create a convincing illusion of light, shade and form, making the works incredibly lifelike. This treatment later became a great influence on the Impressionists.
He also used a camera obscura—a precursor to the camera—which projected images that artists could trace. Many artists used this technology to help them establish basic lines. They still had to arrange each composition and apply their painting skills to show their genius; the instrument was merely an aid in the early placement of elements. With such a small output of paintings, it is probable that Vermeer had other interests. It is thought that he inherited his father’s picture-dealing business and possibly his inn as well. He seems never to have been particularly wealthy, and by 1672 he was in financial trouble. He died insolvent in 1675, at the age of only 43, leaving his wife and 11 surviving children in debt.
Key Works
The Little Street c.1658–60, RIJKSMUSEUM, AMSTERDAM, THE NETHERLANDS
View of Delft c.1660–1, KONINKLIJK KABINET VAN SCHILDERIJEN MAURITSHUIS, THE HAGUE, THE NETHERLANDS
Young Woman with a Water Pitcher c.1664–5, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, US
The Lacemaker c.1669–70, MUSÉE DU LOUVRE, PARIS, FRANCE
The Art of Painting c.1666–73, KUNSTHISTORISCHES MUSEUM, VIENNA, AUSTRIA
Rococo to Neoclassicism
c.1700–1800
At the dawn of the 18th century, both as a development from and a reaction to the Baroque style, another fashion of art and design emerged. Known as Rococo, this ornamental, elegant and light style was eventually replaced at the end of the century by Neoclassicism—a movement that embraced order and restraint.
An era of elegance
In the 1700s, across Europe and many parts of America, traditional institutions, customs and morals were challenged as philosophers championed the principles of personal freedom and democracy. Many of these ideas also swept through the arts. The Rococo style was the visual representation of the positivity the wealthy felt in response to these new philosophies, in particular in France. In 1682, Louis XIV, the Sun King, moved into his opulent palace at Versailles. By 1715, his heir, Louis XV, was on the French throne and his reign was marked by the introduction of similarly extravagant but lighter elements with more curves and delicate patterns. His most well-known mistress, Madame de Pompadour, exerted strong influence at the French court from 1745 to 1750 and her passion for art spread to the rest of Europe.
The flourishing Rococo style emphasized beauty and happiness, encapsulating the elegance of high society. The word “rococo” began to be used at the end of the century, derived from the word “rocaille,” meaning “rock work” or “shell work,” which was a favorite motif of the time. Like many art movements, it began as a derogatory term, implying tastelessness. Characterized by lightness, grace and elegantly flowing shapes, Rococo was initially expressed in interior decoration with light and delicate ornamentation. Rococo-style architecture followed and then painting and sculpture, which spread firstly to Italy and subsequently to other parts of Europe and America.
Rococo painting
In France, the death of Louis XIV in 1715 resulted in the Regency—the heir was only five years old and reigned initially with the help of his great-uncle. The court life that surrounded the young Louis XV as he grew up was sensual and indulgent. Artists of the time include Watteau, Boucher, Fragonard and Chardin. Apart from Chardin, who was more restrained, the aforementioned painters’ work exemplified “joie de vivre” (the joy of living). In England, Rococo was thought of as “French taste” and it appeared in landscapes or in satirical images of society. In Italy, flowing or precise pictures were produced by artists such as Canaletto and Giambattista Tiepolo (1696–1770).
The Age of Enlightenment
Radical new developments continued throughout the century, in science, technology and the arts. Many of the old ways, such as guild systems and religious authority, were being lost. Education was expanding for the middle classes and ordinary people were gaining more autonomy. Intellectual, social and political reforms gave people hope for the future as scholars suggested that reason could be used to overcome oppression and ignorance and create a better world. They began talking about their time as “The Age of Reason.” Later, during the 19th century, the period was referred to as “The Age of Enlightenment.”
With all this intellectualizing, the taste for superficial aesthetics diminished. By the 1760s, Neoclassicism emerged—a conscious use of Greek and Roman elements, such as classical architecture or clean lines and perfect contours. The rebellious attitudes that instigated the American Revolutionary War (1775–83) and the French Revolution (1789–99) resulted in even firmer opinions that frothy, effervescent art was unnecessary. Instead, people looked to the republics of Greece and Rome, perceiving parallels between their own and the ancient societies.
Renaissance artists had been inspired by classical antiquities, but the discovery in Italy of the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum (excavations started in 1748) stimulated a more scientific interest. Neoclassicism had moral as well as artistic implications—its diverse styles were usually based on virtue and heroism. Precise drawing (or accuracy of representation) was favored over color. The greatest Neoclassicist painter was David, who celebrated history and civic pride in large formats. His best student, Ingres, became the quintessential Neoclassicist painter for the next generation.