The great change in Maria Theresa’s foreign policy after 1763 was her reconciliation to the loss of Silesia. Although as a result Maria Theresa and her advisers focused their attention for the most part on domestic affairs, a few foreign matters offered the monarchy opportunities for territorial gain and in two cases carried the threat of renewed warfare. In 1768 the old matter of the fate of the Ottoman Empire appeared again, this time in the form of a Russo-Turkish war and the possibility that Russia would not simply defeat the now-decaying Ottoman state but would replace it as the Habsburg neighbour in the southeast, a condition the Habsburgs wanted to prevent even at great cost. By 1771 Kaunitz was so fearful that this possibility was becoming a probability that he recommended that Austria form an alliance with the Turks to fight the Russians, an idea resisted by Maria Theresa, who still regarded the Turks as infidel predators in Europe. (See also Russo-Turkish wars.)
The threat of war diminished, however, owing to the intervention of Frederick II, who suggested as a solution to the crisis the annexation of Polish territory by the three great eastern European powers and the maintenance of the Ottoman Empire in its entirety in Europe. Austria agreed to this suggestion, although Maria Theresa herself did so most reluctantly. She believed that the difficulties she had had at the beginning of her reign had been brought on by the refusal of the European powers to respect the territorial integrity of their fellows and that, by agreeing to the partition of Poland, she was in fact endorsing the same kind of cynical, parasitical policy that had caused her such grief and that she had regarded as so heinous in 1741. However, as Kaunitz warned her, refusal to take part would not only continue the threat of war but also weaken the monarchy relative to its two powerful neighbours, who had no compunction about adding land and taxpayers to their rolls while Austria received nothing. Consequently, in 1772, Austria, Prussia, and Russia participated in the First Partition of Poland, which added the Polish province of Galicia to the monarchy. (See also Poland, Partitions of.)
In 1775, following the initiative of Joseph II, Maria Theresa’s son, who had joined her as coruler after the death of her husband, the monarchy wrested the province of Bukovina from the Turks. The province served as a convenient connection between Galicia and Transylvania.
Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, detail of a painting by Pompeo Batoni, 1769; in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaCourtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
In 1778 one of Kaunitz’s initiatives, to trade the distant Austrian Netherlands for nearby Bavaria, led to a third war with Prussia. This War of the Bavarian Succession, however, featured virtually no military contact between the two powers, because Maria Theresa, who for a time had left most of the policy making to her chancellor and her son, intervened directly with her old enemy Frederick II and concluded with him the Treaty of Teschen. The treaty resulted in a few minor territorial adjustments—especially the addition of Bavarian territories east of the Inn River to Upper Austria—but above all in the canceling of the proposed swap of the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria. Early reign of Joseph II, 1780–85
Maria Theresa died in 1780 and was followed by Joseph II. The problem of succession had caused Maria Theresa considerable grief in her early years, and she had vowed to create not only governmental institutions to protect her lands but familial ones as well, most notably by making certain that there would never again be a shortage of Habsburgs to rule the monarchy (after her marriage, the official name of the family changed from Habsburg to Habsburg-Lorraine). She gave birth to 16 children, the oldest male being Joseph. Upon the death of Francis I in 1765, Joseph had become emperor and co-regent, but Maria Theresa kept most of the authority in her hands, a condition that led to frequent clashes between the strong-willed mother and the strong-willed son.
When Joseph became sole ruler, he was determined to implement his own policies. One was broadening church reform. Joseph’s role as church reformer has been the subject of considerable debate. In Austrian history the term Josephinism generally means subjecting the Roman Catholic Church in the Habsburg lands to service for the state, but the origins and extent of such subjection have generated controversy. Both Maria Theresa and Joseph were devoutly Roman Catholic, but both also believed in firm state control of ecclesiastical matters outside of the strictly religious sphere. To improve the economy, Maria Theresa ordered restrictions on religious holidays and prohibited the taking of ecclesiastic vows before the 24th birthday. She insisted that clerics be subject to the jurisdiction of the state in nonecclesiastical matters and that the acquisition of land by the church be controlled by the government. She took action against the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), but only in 1774, after the pope had ordered its suppression.
Joseph’s most radical measures in church matters were the Edict of Toleration (1781) and his monastic reforms. The edict and the legislation attached to it gave Lutherans, Calvinists, and Orthodox Christians near equality with Roman Catholics and gave Jews the right to enter various trades as well as permission to study at universities. In this respect, the difference between Joseph and his mother was fundamental. While Maria Theresa regarded Protestants as heretics and Jews as the embodiment of the Antichrist, Joseph respected other Christian denominations, believed Jews did good service for the state, and had at least entertained the thought of an Austrian church independent of Rome.
As to the monasteries, Joseph held that institutions not engaged in useful work for the community—above all agriculture, care of the sick, and education—should be dissolved. Consequently, about a third of the Austrian monasteries ceased to exist, their former members being ordered to learn skills adapted to secular life. The property of the dissolved institutions was used to pay for the upkeep of parishes and to finance the establishment of new parishes.
Control of church discipline and church property were further tightened by Joseph; seminaries for the training of the clergy were secularized. He even tried, without success, to simplify the Roman Catholic liturgy. Many of his religious policies were discontinued in the reaction that followed, but the Edict of Toleration and the monastic reforms remained.
Another of Joseph’s famous reforms was the abolition of serfdom, which was not quite a total abolition but certainly changed considerably the status of the peasants. In November 1781 he issued a decree allowing any peasant to move away from his village, to engage in any trade of his choosing, and to wed whomever he wished, all without asking permission of his lord. Labour service required of a peasant’s children was abolished, except for orphans. Initially these new freedoms applied only to the lands of the Bohemian crown, but over the next few years they were applied to the other Austrian lands and in 1785 to Hungary, the land that had been exempt from most reforms in the Theresian period. Joseph issued decrees providing for peasant appeals to the central government for redress of grievances; this was to make certain that the feudal courts, controlled by the lords, could not sabotage these reforms by issuing decisions against peasants who wanted to exercise their new rights. Such changes were preludes to Joseph’s most daring reform, a proclamation in 1789 that all land, whether held by nobleman or commoner, would be taxed at the same rate of 12 2/9 percent of its appraised value and that all dues and services paid by a peasant to his lord would now be commuted to a cash payment not to exceed 17 2/9 percent of the peasant’s production.