Thus, sexual orientation has multiple dimensions—social, behavioral, chronological, and individual—which must all be taken into account when assessing patterns of heterosexual and homosexual involvement. It is true that exclusive homosexuality in animals is less common than bisexuality—but it is not a uniquely human phenomenon, for it occurs in many more species than previously supposed. Moreover, because of the wide prevalence of bisexuality—both within and across species—exclusive heterosexuality is also certainly less than ubiquitous. Animals, like people, have complex life histories that involve a wide spectrum of sexual orientations, with many different degrees of participation in both same- and opposite-sex activities. To the question “Do animals engage in bisexuality or exclusive homosexuality?” we must therefore answer “both and neither.” There is no such thing as a single type of “bisexuality” nor a uniform pattern of “exclusive homosexuality.” Multiple shades of sexual orientation are found throughout the animal world—sometimes coexisting in the same species or even the same individual—forming part of a much larger spectrum of sexual variance.
Nonchalant Onlookers and Gay Ghettos: Social and Spatial Responses
While homosexual behavior is widespread among our primate relatives, aggression specifically directed toward individuals that engage in it appears to be a uniquely human invention.
—PAUL L. VASEY26
An aspect of animal homosexuality that has received little attention in both popular and scientific discussions is the position or “status” of homosexual, bisexual, and transgendered individuals in the larger society. What kind of social response do they evoke from the animals around them? What is their spatial relation to the rest of the population—are they segregated, fully integrated, or somewhere in between? Primatologist Paul L. Vasey suggests that homosexual behavior in primates is characterized by a noticeable lack of hostility and segregation from the animals around them, and by and large this does appear to be true—not only for primates, but also for the vast majority of other species in which homosexual activity occurs. Almost without exception, animals with “different” sexualities and/or genders are completely integrated into the social fabric of the species, eliciting little of the attention, hostility, segregation, or secrecy that we are accustomed to associating with homosexuality in our society. Observer after scientific observer has commented on how homosexual behavior in animals is greeted with nonchalance from nearby animals. Individuals move effortlessly between their homosexual activities and other social interactions or behaviors without eliciting so much as a second glance from the animals around them.27
Where individuals engaging in homosexual activity do attract attention, it is usually out of simple curiosity (e.g., African Buffalo, Musk-oxen), or else because other animals want to participate.28 In a number of species such as Bonobos, Killer Whales, West Indian Manatees, Giraffes, Pronghorns, Common Murres, and Sage Grouse, homosexual interactions between two animals often develop into group sessions as more and more animals are drawn to the activity and join in. This is also true for heterosexual interactions in many of these species, and sometimes homosexual and heterosexual activity are part of the same group interaction. This illustrates an important point concerning the integration of homosexual activity within the larger social framework: when bisexuality is prevalent in a species, or when a large proportion of the population engages in homosexual activity (as is often the case), the distinction between “homosexual” and “heterosexual” animals melts away, as does the potential for aggressive responses based on those categories. An “observer” of homosexual activity could just as easily be a participant at some other time, and any separation between animals that engage in same-sex activity and those that don’t becomes essentially arbitrary.
Even in species where homosexuality, bisexuality, or transgender are not widespread, animals that participate in same-sex behaviors (or transgendered individuals) are not generally treated to adverse reactions from the majority around them. Rather, homosexual activity is regarded as routinely as heterosexual activity is. In fact, in many species it is heterosexual, not homosexual, behaviors that draw a negative response. In numerous primates and other animals, for example, male-female copulations are regularly harassed and interrupted by surrounding animals. Same-sex activity in these species is either disregarded altogether (e.g., Stumptail Macaques), or else is subject to a much lower rate of harassment and interruption than opposite-sex matings (e.g., Hanuman Langurs, Japanese Macaques).29 Adult male Bonobos interfere with the heterosexual pursuits of younger males while ignoring (or even participating in) their homosexual activities, while heterosexual breeding pairs of Jackdaws, rather than same-sex pairs, are sometimes terrorized by nonbreeding heterosexual pairs (who may even kill their young). And in Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock, heterosexual courtship interactions are routinely interrupted and harassed by other males while homosexual activities are not. In fact, females defer to males engaging in same-sex courtship or copulation (by leaving or avoiding the display grounds while this activity is going on), and males may actually interrupt heterosexual interactions by initiating homosexual ones.30
Not only are homosexuality and transgender largely devoid of negative responses from other individuals, in some cases they actually appear to confer a positive status on the animals involved. In species that have a ranked form of social organization, for instance, homosexual activities are often found among the highest-ranking individuals (e.g., Gorillas, Bighorn Sheep, Takhi, Gray-capped Social Weavers). Likewise, transgendered animals sometimes have high status in a population (e.g., Savanna Baboons) or are more successful than other animals at obtaining sexual partners (e.g., Red Deer, Common Garter Snakes).31 While the benefits experienced by these individuals are not necessarily a direct result of their transgender or homosexuality, in a few cases individuals actually do appear to rise in status or obtain other positive results specifically because of their homosexual activities. Black Swans and Greylag Geese who form homosexual partnerships, for example, often become powerful, high-ranking forces in their flocks, in part because the combined strength of the paired males gives them an advantage that single males and heterosexual pairs do not have. In fact, Black Swan male pairs sometimes acquire the largest and most desirable territories in their domain, relegating other birds to a distinctly disadvantaged status.32
Same-sex couples in many animals routinely defend their home territories against intruders or assist their partners in conflicts with other individuals (as do heterosexual pairs).33 However, some homosexual and transgendered individuals in a number of species take this a step further, not merely defending themselves but actually going on the offensive. Gander or cob pairs often become so powerful that they are able to “terrorize” an entire flock, attacking individuals (as in Greylag Geese) or even forcing heterosexual pairs to give up their nests and eggs (as in Black Swans), which they take over to raise as their own. Male pairs of Flamingos have also been known to steal nests from other birds, while single males occasionally pursue and harass heterosexual pairs out of interest in the male (rather than the female) partner. Female pairs of Orange-fronted Parakeets often behave aggressively toward heterosexual pairs and may actively “dominate” them through attacks and threats, even successfully competing against them for possession of nesting sites. Laughing Gull homosexual pairs sometimes intrude on territories belonging to neighboring heterosexual pairs and harry the owners, as do pairs of male Rose-ringed Parakeets. A similar pattern has also been reported for Nilgiri Langurs, in which two males who live in the same troop and sometimes participate in same-sex mounting with each other (without necessarily being bonded to one another) may cooperate in attacking males from neighboring troops. Male Lions who are involved in homosexual courtship and sexual activities may attack other males who get too close to them, leading to intense fights in which the courting pair is often assisted by other group members who are not themselves directly involved in the homosexual activity. Homosexual consortships between female Rhesus Macaques can develop into powerful and highly aggressive alliances when the partners take the initiative in attacking other individuals and even driving them from the troop; female Japanese Macaques often vigorously compete with males (and other females) for access to female sexual partners. One female Common Chimpanzee that had sexual relationships with other females was consistently aggressive toward other individuals and came to be feared by Chimps of both sexes. Sometimes the aggression is directed at rival heterosexual partners: a female Livingstone’s Fruit Bat who sexually pursued her own mother, for example, successfully fought off males that were also interested in mating with her mother. Finally, a transgendered Savanna (Chacma) Baboon was one of the strongest and highest-ranking members of her troop; described as exhibiting “courage and determination,” she routinely interfered in heterosexual matings by threatening, “capturing,” and then “carrying off” the male partner so she could mate with him.34