And in other research: Levenson, L. L. Carstensen, Friesen, and Ekman, “Emotion, Physiology, and Expression in Old Age,” Psychology and Aging 6 (1991): 28–35.
“A man goes to the supermarket once a week”: For a full complement of these moral scenarios, see J. Haidt, S. H. Koller, and M. G. Dias, “Affect, Culture, and Morality, or Is It Wrong to Eat Your Dog?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993): 613–28.
People’s responses to this kind of thought experiment have led Jonathan Haidt: Haidt, “The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Taiclass="underline" A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment,” Psychological Review 108 (2001): 814–34, and “The Moral Emotions,” in Handbook of Affective Sciences, 852–70. M. D. Hauser, Moral Minds (New York: HarperCollins, 2006). J. D. Greene, and Haidt, “How (and Where) Does Moral Judgment Work?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (2002): 517–23.
well-known theory of moral development: Lawrence Kohlberg, “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, ed. T. Lickona (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976), 31–53. For excellent extensions of some of Kohlberg’s claims, see the work of Elliot Turieclass="underline" The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); The Culture of Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Turiel, M. Killen, and C. Helwig, “Morality: Its Structure, Functions, and Vagaries,” in The Emergence of Morality in Children, ed. Jerome Kagan and S. Lamb (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 155–243.
In one study: D. Keltner, P. C. Ellsworth, and K. Edwards, “Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (1993): 740–52.
consider the following neuroimaging study: J. D. Greene et al., “An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment,” Science 75 (2001): 2105-08.
When the Dalai Lama visited: His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Ethics for the New Millennium (New York; Riverhead, 1999), 63.
Confucius was on the same page: Armstrong, The Great Transformation, 249.
Martha Nussbaum, bucking the trends of moral philosophy: Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought, 297–454.
Emotions have not fared well in these thought experiments: For an excellent survey of treatments of emotion in Western thought, see Keith Oatley, Emotions: A Brief History (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004).
consider the metaphors that we routinely use in the English language to explain our emotions: Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By; Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things; Kövesces, Metaphor.
SURVIVAL OF THE KINDEST
In November 1943, S. L. A. “Slam” Marshall, a U.S. Army lieutenant coloneclass="underline" S. L. A. Marshall, Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1947/2000).
they would reach contrasting conclusions: For an excellent summary of early evolutionary views of altruism, see Helena Cronin, The Ant and the Peacock. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), chap. 15.
In Descent, Darwin argued that the social instincts: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: John Murray, 1871), chap. 4.
“The following proposition”: Ibid., 84.
“Such actions as the above”: Ibid., 95.
at the top of my list would be the field notes of a Cro-Magnon anthropologist: Several books portray the social lives of our hominid predecessors: David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004). 139–332; Stephen Mithen, After the Ice: A Global History of Human History 20,000 to 5000 BC (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Nicholas Wade Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors (New York: Penguin Press, 2007), 51–180.
A detailed portrayal of the day in the life of our hominid predecessors would shed light on our environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA): John Tooby and Leda Cosmides, “The Psychological Foundations of Culture,” in The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, ed. Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 163–228.
We can turn to studies of our closest primate relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos in particular: Several books capture the social dimensions of mammalian evolution that lay the foundation for the analysis of emotions that I offer: Frans B. M. de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996); John R. Krebs and Nicholas B. Davies, An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 1993); Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992); Frans B. M. de Waal, ed., Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us About Human Social Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 121–43; Marc Hauser, The Evolution of Communication, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
first attempts at visual art and music: Stephen Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art and Science (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996); D. Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004).
detailed observations of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies: Paul R. Ehrlich, Human Natures. Genes, Cultures, and the Human Prospect (New York: Penguin, 2002); Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit (New York: Holt, 2003); Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Human Ethology (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1989).
the prevalence of caregiving, a hallmark feature of higher primates: Sarah Blaffer Hrdy has written brilliantly about the prevalence of caretaking behavior in different primates and how it is an often overlooked basis of alliances and strategic exchanges. Hrdy, Mother Nature (New York: Ballantine, 1999). For a rigorous discussion of human caregiving, read Shelley E. Taylor, The Tending Instinct (New York: Henry Holt, 2002).
as Frans de Waal has observed: de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), chap. 2.
Our hominid predecessors evolved bigger brains: Ehrlich, Human Natures, chap. 6.
“carried in a sling”: Konner, The Tangled Wing, 306.
Cooperative child rearing, where relatives and friends traded off duties: Hrdy, Mother Nature, 90–95.
consistent evidence of cooperative hunting for meat: Stephen Mithen, Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 238.
fall to their deaths: ibid., 238.
morphological changes that gave rise to our remarkable capacity to communicate: Marc D. Hauser, The Evolution of Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
Unlike our primate relatives, the human face has relatively little obscuring hair: Nina Jablonski, Skin: A Natural History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006), 43.