Albert Ellis, one of the modern founders of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), had studied the Stoics. When Ellis first started work with new clients, he always gave them a copy of this famous Stoic saying: “It’s not things that upset us, but our opinions about them.”12 That, in essence, is the central, foundational thought behind the entire field of cognitive therapy. Ellis used a simplified scheme, known as the “ABC Theory of Emotion,” which was directly based on Stoic philosophy (see figure 2). First, with A, there is an Activating event. Then with B, there is a Belief, opinion, or judgment. And finally there appears C, Consequences, which is usually an emotional result of the earlier belief.
Fig 2: Albert Ellis’s “ABC Theory of Emotion” was directly based on the Stoic idea that “it’s not things that upset us, but our beliefs about them.”
If you get splashed by a car on a rainy day and simply believe “I just got splashed,” the main consequence is that you might feel a bit wet. But if you believe “My entire day has been ruined,” which is the same as saying “I’ve been harmed,” the consequence would most likely be extreme anger. From this, we can see that it’s our unexamined, often irrational beliefs that cause emotional reactions. Fortunately, we can better understand those faulty beliefs, and even eliminate them, by analyzing them through the practice of Socratic questioning, either on our own or with the help of a therapist or mentor.
Nearly 20 percent of people in the United States suffer from anxiety disorders. But many individuals who study Stoicism and use Stoic mindfulness techniques have reported significant declines in the experience of negative emotions like anxiety and anger.
It’s fascinating to see how cognitive therapy was influenced by Stoicism, especially since some of Seneca’s letters to Lucilius read just like little psychotherapy sessions. Seneca knew Lucilius well enough to understand what many of his friend’s underlying beliefs were, and it’s educational to see Seneca questioning his friend’s assumptions. It’s also remarkable to watch Seneca explaining how other beliefs might lead to happier outcomes. This is exactly the same process a modern cognitive therapist would use today.
In this way, Stoicism was a precursor of modern-day cognitive behavioral therapy, and the founders of CBT, like Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck, directly drew upon Stoic teachings to create their modern therapeutic methods. In the first major textbook published on cognitive therapy, Beck flatly stated, “The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers.”13 As Stoicism and CBT both show, by coming to understand and challenge the distorted thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes that cause suffering, psychological anxiety can be greatly reduced. Significantly, this cognitive “therapy of the passions,” which originated with the Stoics, has been scientifically proven to resolve many kinds of psychological disorders. For example, CBT is the most studied form of psychotherapy, and is the “gold standard” in treating mental anxiety. In some studies, CBT has helped 75 to 80 percent of patients to recover from different types of anxiety, including panic attacks.
Another approach from Seneca, which is also used in CBT, involves dialing down the level of our emotions, especially emotions connected with the future. In Letter 5, Seneca writes, “Limiting desire helps to cure fears.” He then quotes a line from the Stoic philosopher Hecato: “Cease to hope, and you will cease to fear.”14
Seneca explains that hope and fear are conjoined because they are both emotions that become activated by our imagination about the future. He writes, “Both come from a mind that is in suspense, worried in anticipation of what is to come. The greatest cause of each is that we don’t apply ourselves to the present but project our thoughts far into the future.”15
While many concerns we have about the future might appear to be reasonable, Seneca taught that we should carefully analyze those concerns. In that way, we can respond to them in a thoughtful way, rather than in a way that generates emotional suffering. For example, Seneca noted that people have an irrational fear of death, even though death is a part of life. Since death is natural and something everyone should expect, to view it as being something terrible is a cognitive error. The later Stoic, Epictetus, agreed with him:
It is not things themselves that disturb people, but people’s opinions about things. Death, for example, is nothing frightening, or Socrates would have thought so too. The fear arises from the opinion that death is frightening [emphasis added]. So whenever we feel frustrated, disturbed, or upset, we should never blame anyone else, only ourselves—that is to say, our own opinions.16
Ultimately, while the Stoics didn’t believe in the existence of real misfortunes, they understood full well how things feel like misfortunes through the judgments we make or the opinions we hold. Also, as Seneca pointed out, it’s just not possible to avoid emotional shock at some events. Those reactions are natural, instinctual, and not based on opinions. But even in such cases, it’s possible to reduce the psychological impact, and to keep those emotional shocks from developing into something more serious.
For some conditions, like the fear of poverty, Seneca advocated specific exercises to lessen or eliminate the grip of the fear, and to prepare ourselves for the feeling of misfortune or emotional suffering. We’ll take a look at some of these exercises in other parts of this book. In fact, Seneca frequently recommends that we consider in advance every possible adversity that could impact us. In this way, if such a mishap actually occurs, we’ll be mentally prepared for it, and the blow of the misfortune will be decreased. But for Seneca, anticipating or even rehearsing the possibility of adversity in the future is not a form of worry or fear. It’s a way to calmly and rationally consider things that could happen, draining future misfortunes of their emotional impact should they occur. (This also resembles a technique used by modern psychologists.)
While it takes awareness and practice, when a feeling of worry about the future first arises, we can question it, analyze it, and consciously decide to return to living in the present moment. But living in the present moment isn’t just some kind of psychological solution for Seneca—it’s one of the key things needed to lead a complete human life.
FINDING YOURSELF IN THE PRESENT MOMENT
The present alone can make no one miserable.
—Seneca, Letters 5.9
Do you want to know why people are greedy for the future? It’s because no one has yet found himself.
—Seneca, Letters 32.4
When you live in the present moment, you have finally found yourself, and you are living from the center of who you really are, your most essential self.
The idea of living from your own center, and being present at this very moment, without desiring future states or external things, is one of the keys to achieving Stoic happiness or joy. When we are fully present and living from our inner selves, we experience feelings of radiance, joy, and completeness. To use a metaphor, the soul starts to shine like the sun; and as long as we can maintain this sense of presence and self-sufficiency, the sun will keep shining. This doesn’t mean there won’t be external disturbances, but those disturbances will be like clouds floating below the serene, radiant face of the sun. Those clouds float by, but do nothing to alter or disturb the sun or its light.