work In physics, the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a distance by an external force, some component of which is applied in the direction of displacement. For a constant force, work W is equal to the magnitude of the force F times the displacement d of the object, or W = Fd. Work is also done by compressing a gas, by rotating a shaft, and by causing invisible motions of particles within a body by an external magnetic force. No work is accomplished by simply holding a heavy stationary object, because there is no transfer of energy and no displacement. Work done on a body is equal to the increase in energy of the body. Work is expressed in units called joules (J). One joule is equivalent to the energy transferred when a force of one newton is applied over a distance of one metre.
workers' compensation Program through which employers bear some of the cost of their employees’ work-related injuries and occupa¬ tional illnesses or disabilities. It was first introduced in Germany in 1884. In Britain and the U.S. in the late 19th century, there was a movement to secure the right of injured workers to compensation and to improve work¬ ing conditions through court decisions, employer liability statutes, and safety codes. By the mid-20th century most countries in the world had adopted some sort of workers’ compensation. Some systems take the form of compulsory social insurance; in others the employer is legally required to provide certain benefits, but insurance is voluntary. The system of workers’ compensation serves as an economic incentive for employers to prevent accidents and illness among employees, since liability for medi¬ cal costs and the income lost by placing workers in hazardous environ¬ ments can easily exceed the costs of establishing safe working conditions.
Workers' Opposition (1920-21) Group within the Soviet Union’s Communist Party that championed workers’ rights and trade-union control
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over industry. It was formed in 1919 to resist the central party’s increas¬ ing control over local party units and trade unions. In 1920 it objected to Leon Trotsky’s plan to transform trade unions into state organs. Led by Aleksandra Kollontay and others, the group insisted that the unions, as true representatives of the proletariat, should control the national economy. At the 10th Party Congress (1921), its platform was rejected and it was ordered to disperse.
working dog Any of various breeds of dog bred as guard, herding, draft, or rescue animals. Breeds range from medium to large, but all are sturdy and muscular, intelligent and loyal. Guard breeds include the Akita, boxer, bullmastiff, Doberman pinscher, giant and standard schnauzers, Great Dane, mastiff, and Rottweiler. Livestock guard breeds include the Great Pyrenees, komondor (Hungary), kuvasz (Tibet), and Pyrenean mountain dogs (Britain). Herding dogs include the German shepherd, Shetland sheep¬ dog, and Welsh corgi. Breeds developed for hauling and rescue work include the Bernese mountain dog, Portuguese water dog, Newfoundland, St. Bernard, and sled dog.
Workingmen's Party First labour-oriented U.S. political party. It was formed in Philadelphia (1828) and New York (1829) by craftsmen, skilled journeymen, and reformers who demanded a 10-hour workday, free public education, abolition of debtor imprisonment, and an end to competition from prison contract labour. Leaders included Thomas Skid¬ more, Fanny Wright, Robert Dale Owen, and George H. Evans, who estab¬ lished the Working Man’s Advocate, the first labour newspaper, in 1829. Factional disputes split the party in the 1830s, and many in New York joined the reform Locofoco Party.
Works Progress Administration See WPA
workstation Computer intended for use by one person, but with a much faster processor and more memory than an ordinary personal computer. Workstations are designed for powerful business applications that do large numbers of calculations or require high-speed graphical displays; the requirements of CAD/CAM systems were one reason for their initial development. Because of their need for computing power, they are often based on RISC processors and generally use UNIX as their operating sys¬ tem. An early workstation was introduced in 1987 by Sun Microsystems; workstations introduced in 1988 from Apollo, Ardent, and Stellar were aimed at 3D graphics applications. The term workstation is also sometimes used to mean a personal computer connected to a mainframe computer, to distinguish it from “dumb” display terminals with limited applications.
World Bank Specialized agency of the United Nations system, estab¬ lished at the Bretton Woods Conference for postwar reconstruction. It is the principal international development institution. Its five divisions are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD; its main component), the International Development Association (IDA), the Inter¬ national Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guaran¬ tee Agency (MIGA), and the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The IDA (founded 1960) makes interest- free loans to the bank’s poorest member countries. The IFC (founded 1956) lends to private businesses in developing countries. The MIGA (founded 1985) supports national and private agencies that encourage for¬ eign direct investment by offering insurance against noncommercial risks. The ICSID (founded 1966) was developed to relieve the IBRD of the bur¬ den of settling investment disputes. See also International Monetary Fund.
World Council of Churches (WCC) Christian ecumenical organi¬ zation founded in 1948 in Amsterdam. It functions as a forum for Prot¬ estant and Eastern Orthodox denominations, which cooperate through the WCC on a variety of undertakings and explore doctrinal similarities and differences. It grew out of two post-World War I ecumenical efforts, the Life and Work Movement (which concentrated on practical activities) and the Faith and Order Movement (which focused on doctrinal issues and the possibility of reunion). The impetus for these two organizations sprang from the International Missionary Conference in Edinburgh in 1910, the first such cooperative effort since the Reformation. The Roman Catholic church, though not a member of the WCC, sends representatives to its conferences. The more fundamentalist Protestant denominations have also refused to join.
World Court See International Court of Justice
World Cup Major international football (soccer) competition. The tour¬ nament brings together 32 qualifying national teams from around the world, culminating in a match between the two top teams. It has been
held every fourth year since 1930 (except during World War II). Followed and watched by billions of people worldwide, it has by far the greatest audience of any single sporting event in the world. Several competitions in other sports also use the name “world cup.”