Alabama claims U.S. maritime grievances against Britain in the American Civil War. Although Britain had declared official neutrality in the war, it allowed the Confederate cruiser Alabama , which later destroyed 68 Union ships, to be constructed in England. U.S. ambassa¬ dor Charles Francis Adams demanded that the British take responsibility for these damages, and he advocated arbitration to settle the matter. In May 1871 the parties signed the Treaty of Washington, which established certain wartime obligations of neutrals. The tribunal also held Britain liable for losses and awarded the U.S. damages of $15.5 million.
Alabama River River, southern Alabama, U.S. Formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers northeast of Montgomery, it winds westward to Selma and then flows southward. The river’s navigable length is 305 mi (491 km). It is joined above Mobile by the Tombigbee River to form the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which flow into Mobile Bay. Mobile and Mont¬ gomery became major cities largely because they were on this important artery.
alabaster Fine-grained gypsum that has been used for centuries for statuary, carvings, and other ornaments. It normally is snow-white and translucent but can be artificially dyed; it may be made opaque and simi¬ lar in appearance to marble by heat treatment. Florence, Livorno, Milan, and Berlin are important centres of the alabaster trade. The alabaster of the ancients was a brown or yellow onyx marble.
Alaca Huyuk V.a-la-'ja-hoe-.yiBkX Ancient Anatolian site, north-central Turkey. It lies northeast of the old Hittite capital of Bogazkoy. Traces of a Hittite building were found in the early 20th century and below them a royal necropolis of tombs from c. 2500 bc. There is evidence of the advanced accomplishments of Copper Age metallurgy in the form of jew¬ elry, bowls, and jugs. Though the ethnic identity of the preliterate inhab¬ itants is uncertain, they probably belonged to the non-Indo-European population that preceded the Hittites.
Aladdin Hero of a well-known story in The Thousand and One Nights. The son of a poor widow, Aladdin is a lazy, careless boy who meets an African magician claiming to be his uncle. He sends Aladdin into a cave to find a magic lamp, but Aladdin refuses to hand over the lamp until he is safely out of the cave. The angry magician shuts the boy in the cave and departs, but Aladdin discovers that he can summon powerful genies (jinn) by rubbing the lamp. The genies grant his every wish, and Aladdin becomes rich, marries the sultan’s beautiful daughter, and reigns for many years.
Alamein, Battles of El See Battles of El Alamein
AlamgTr Val-3m- 1 ger\ II in full ( Az?z al-DTn 'Alamglr II (b. June 6, 1699, Multan, India—d. Nov. 29, 1769, Delhi) Mughal emperor of India (1754-59). He was placed on the throne by the imperial vizier Imad al-Mulk Ghazi al-Dln and was always the puppet of more powerful men, including the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani, whose agents occupied Delhi in 1757 and made Alamglr the nominal emperor of Hindustan. He was murdered by Ghazi al-Dln, who feared Alamglr might be captured and used against him in another Afghan invasion.
Alamo Eighteenth-century mission in San Antonio, Texas, site of a his¬ toric siege of a small group of Texans by a Mexican army (1836) during the Texas war for independence from Mexico. The abandoned mission was occupied occasionally by Spanish troops, who named it the Alamo
(“cottonwood”) after the surrounding trees. At the start of the war in December 1835, volunteers occupied the Alamo and vowed to fight to the death any attempt to recapture it. In February 1836 a Mexican army of several thousand began a siege that lasted 13 days. The Texan force of about 180, led by Jim Bowie and including Davy Crockett, was overrun; nearly all the defenders were killed (about 15 persons, mostly women and children, were spared). Mexican casualties were at least 600. “Remem¬ ber the Alamo!” became a rallying cry for Texans through the remainder of the war.
Alanbrooke (of Brookeborough), Alan Francis Brooke, 1 st Viscount (b. July 23, 1883, Bagneres-de-Bigorre, France—d. June 17, 1963, Hartley Wintney, Hampshire, Eng.) British military leader. He served in World War I and later became director of military training (1936-37) and an expert on gunnery. In World War II he began as com¬ mander of a corps in France and covered the Dunkirk evacuation. After serving as commander of the British home forces (1940-41), he was pro¬ moted to chief of staff (1941—46). He established good relations with the U.S. forces and exercised a strong influence on Allied strategy. He was promoted to field marshal in 1944 and created a viscount in 1946.
Aland \'o-,lan\ Islands Archipelago, southwestern Finland, constitut¬ ing Ahvenanmaan autonomous kunta (commune). It consists of about 35 inhabited islands (pop., 2002 est.: 26,000) and more than 6,000 uninhab¬ ited ones, with a total land area of 599 sq mi (1,552 sq km). Aland, the largest island, is the location of Mariehamn, the administrative capital and chief seaport. The islands were Christianized by 12th-century Swedish missionaries. When Finland declared its independence in 1917, the Alanders sought to become part of Sweden. Though the archipelago remains with Finland, it has been given unique autonomy.
alanine Va-lo-nenN Either of two organic compounds. Alpha-alanine is one of the nonessential amino acids, found in most proteins and particu¬ larly abundant in fibroin, the protein in silk. It is used in research and as a dietary supplement. Beta-alanine is a naturally occurring amino acid not found in proteins. It is an important constituent of the vitamin pantothenic acid and is used in its synthesis, as well as in biochemical research, elec¬ troplating, and organic synthesis.
Alaric Va-lo-rikV I (b. c. 370, Peuce Island—d. 410, Cosentia, Bruttium) Chief of the Visigoths (395-410). He commanded Gothic troops in the Roman army before leaving to become chief of the Visigoths. He led his tribe into Greece, sacking cities until placated by the Eastern emperor (397). He twice led invasions of Italy, the second time extorting a large payment from the Roman Senate. Alaric’s forces grew after the Romans massacred the wives and children of Visigoths serving in the Roman army. He besieged Rome (408, 409), proclaiming Priscus Attalus as Western emperor. In 410 Alaric occupied and plundered Rome, the first time the city had been captured by a foreign enemy in 800 years. See also Goths.
Alaska State (pop., 2000: 626,932) of the U.S., lying at the northwest extremity of North America. It is the largest in area of the U.S. states, covering 587,875 sq mi (1,522,595 sq km). Bordered by Canada to the east and southeast and facing Siberia across the Bering Strait and Bering Sea to the west, it has the highest point on the continent, Mount McKin¬ ley. Its capital is Juneau. The original inhabitants, Indians and Eskimos, are thought to have migrated over the Bering Land Bridge as well as from the Arctic. The first European settlement was established in the late 18th century by Russian fur traders on Kodiak Island. Hudson's Bay Co. traders were also interested in the same area, and Russian-Canadian trade rivalry lasted well into the 19th century. In 1867 William Seward negotiated Alas¬ ka’s sale from the Russians to the U.S., and the subsequent discovery of gold stimulated American settlement. Alaska was a U.S. territory from 1912 until it was admitted as the 49th state in 1959. Its economy has become increasingly centred on oil and natural gas: since the opening of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline in 1977, Alaska has become second only to Texas in the U.S. production of crude oil.