Diaghilev's art reached its height in the three ballet masterpieces of the young Russian composer Igor Stravinsky: The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913). In Petrushka, perhaps the greatest of the Diaghilev ballets, Stravinsky, at Diaghilev's insistence, transformed a conventionally conceived piano concerto (on which he had been working) into a mimed ballet, bringing into real life the fantasy dramas of puppets ata showman's fair. The incident is indicative of the extraordinary psychological influence Diaghilev was able to exert over his collaborators. In The Rite of
Spring Stravinsky produced one of the most explosive orchestral scores of the twentieth century, and the production created an uproar in the Paris theatre at its first performance. The scandalous dissonances and rhythmic brutality of the music provoked among the fashionable audience such protestations that the dancers were unable to hear the orchestra in the nearby pit. They carried on, nevertheless, encouraged by the choreographer Nijinsky, who stood on a chair in the wings, shouting out and miming the rhythm.
One of the many enduring features of the Ballet Russes was its innovative approach to ballet as theatre. Performances were characterized by their bold use of colour - Natalya Gonchar- ova's design for Le Coq d'or in 1914 was unprecedented in its use of vivid colours, chiefly shades of red, yellow, and orange, with other colours for discordant emphasis - and innovations in stage design. Lйon Bakst, whose designs for Clйopвtre (1909) were his first commission for Diaghilev, produced stage sets and costumes with brilliant palettes and well-coordinated decors. In later seasons Diaghilev engaged as designers Pablo Picasso, Georges Rouault, Henri Matisse, and Andrй Derain.
Of course Diaghilev worked closely with and depended on an exceptionally talented array of dancers and choreographers. Tamara Karsavina had been prima ballerina at the Mariinsky Theatre. Her repertoire included Giselle and Od- ette/Odile in Swan Lake, but she is best known as the leading ballerina of the Ballets Russes from its beginning in 1909 until 1922. Between 1909 and 1914 (paired with Nijinsky until 1913) she created most of the famous roles in Fokine's neo- romantic repertoire. Fokine was the first choreographer to put Diaghilev's ideas into practice. He worked with Stravinsky and Ravel, and his major scenic artists were Alexandre Benois and Bakst, whose contributions to theatrical design had influences beyond the sphere of ballet. Firebird and Petrushka are among his most famous creations.
Nijinsky succeeded Fokine as the company's choreographer, A classic dancer, Nijinsky was an anti-classic choreographer, specializing in turned-in body movements and in unusual footwork. In 1912 he choreographed Afternoon of a Faun to music written by Debussy - it is the only Nijinsky ballet still performed. Lйonide Massine assumed the role of choreographer after Nijinsky. He quickly became noted for his wit and the precisely characterizing gestures of his dancers. His musical collaborators included Stravinsky, Manuel de Falla, Ottorino Respighi, and Erik Satie, and his designers included leading painters such as Derain and Picasso.
Following Diaghilev's death, Massine created a furore in the 1930s with his ballets based on symphonies by Tchaikovsky and Johannes Brahms. It was considered inappropriate to use symphonic music for dance, and the incorporation of the style and movements of modern dance into the plotless ballets added to the controversy. Another of Diaghilev's choreographers was Nijinsky's sister, Bronislawa Nijinska (1891-1972), who became famous for her massive ensemble groupings. Diaghilev's last choreographic discovery was the Russian- trained George Balanchine (1904-83). Balanchine's 1928 ballet Apollon musagиte was the first of many collaborations with Stravinsky, and led the way to the final enthronement of neoclassicism as the dominant choreographic style of the following decades.
The artistic effects of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes were far- reaching. Ballet performance had changed irrevocably, and many of those who had worked with him continued and developed further his ideals. Pavlova formed her own company, travelling to Europe, the Americas, Australia, and Asia.
A troupe assembled by Ida Rubinstein had Nijinska as a choreographer, and Stravinsky and Ravel as composers. A number of ballet teachers left Russia of their own accord to teach in and direct schools in Paris, London, and Berlin. Another Diaghilev dancer, Dame Marie Rambcrt (18881982), founded the Ballet Rambert in London, and, in New York, Balanchine set up the School of American Ballet in 1934, From it he drew the dancers for the several companies that led ultimately to the founding of the New York City Ballet in 1948. Russian-born ballet librettist Boris Kochno became a major influence on post-Second World War French ballet.
Other Ballet in the Soviet Period
Ballet enjoyed great success in the Soviet period, not because of any innovations but because the great troupes of the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and the Kirov (Mariinsky) Theatre in Leningrad (St Petersburg) were able to preserve the traditions of classical dance that had been perfected prior to 1917 in tsarist Russia. The Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another. Among the greatest talents were Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev (who defected in 1961), and Mikhail Baryshnikov (who defected in 1974).
The Post-Soviet Period
Theatrical life in post-Soviet Russia has continued to thrive. The Moscow and St Petersburg theatres have maintained their leading position, but they have been joined by hundreds of other theatres throughout the country. Liberated from state
RUDOLF NUREYEV (1938-93) Russian ballet dancer
Born in Irkutsk, Nureyev studied ballet in Leningrad (1955-8), where he joined the Kirov Ballet as a soloist. He defected during the company's tour to Paris in 1961. Thereafter he danced as a guest artist with many companies, especially the Royal Ballet, where he regularly partnered Margot Fonteyn. His performances, combining an intensely romantic sensibility with stunning muscularity and technique, made him an international star. He choreographed new versions of Romeo and Juliet, Manfred, and The Nutcracker. From 1983 to 1989 he was artistic director of the Paris Opйra Ballet.
censorship, the theatres have experimented with bold and innovative techniques and subject matter. The repertoire of the theatres has experienced a shift away from political topics and towards classical and psychological themes. The Moscow Academic Art Theatre remains prestigious. The Bolshoi is another of the most renowned theatres, but since the late 1990s its dominance has been challenged by the Novaya (New) Opera Theatre in Moscow. Among other successful theatres in Moscow are the Maly (Little) Theatre for drama, the Luna Theatre, Arbat Opera, Moscow City Opera, and the Helikon Opera.
The Bolshoi Theatre, founded in 1825, was so successful a venue for the performing arts that in 1924 a smaller auditorium was added to the theatre complex, and in 1961 the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, with a capacity of about 6,000, was acquired as a third performing space for bigger productions. The company was kept intact during the Russian Revolution of 1917, both world wars, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990-1. Since the mid-1950s the Bolshoi's opera and ballet troupes have travelled extensively; in the twenty-first century they continue to attract audiences worldwide.