PART 4
RUSSIA TODAY
Present-day Russia
10
GOVERNANCE AND THE ECONOMY
Governance
During the Soviet era the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (the RSFSR) was subject to a series of Soviet constitutions, the last in 1977, under which it nominally was a sovereign socialist state within (after 1936) a federal structure. Until the late 1980s, however, the government was dominated at all levels by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), whose head was the country's de facto leader. Indeed, in each of the elections that were held there was a single slate of candidates, most of whom were in effect chosen by the Communist Party.
From the late 1980s until 1991, fundamental changes took place in the political system and government structures of the Soviet Union that altered both the nature of the Soviet federal state and the status and powers of the individual republics. In 1988 the Soviet Congress of People's Deputies was created, and a Congress of People's Deputies was established in each of tlie Soviet republics. For the first time, elections to these bodies presented voters with a choice of candidates, including non- communists, though the Communist Party continued to dominate the system.
Thereafter, the pace of change accelerated. In June 1990 the Russian Congress proclaimed that Russian laws took precedence over Soviet laws, and the following year Boris Yeltsin became the republic's first democratically elected president. An abortive coup in August 1991 by hardliners opposed to the reforms begun under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s led to the collapse of most Soviet government organizations, the abolition of the Communist Party's leading role in government, and the dissolution of the Communist Party itself. Republic after republic declared its "sovereignty", and in December, when the Soviet Union was formally dissolved, Russia was established as an independent country.
Constitutional Framework
The structure of the new Russian government differed significantly from that of the former Soviet republic. It was characterized by a balance between the executive and legislative branches that led them to compete for supremacy, primarily over issues of constitutional authority and the pace and direction of democratic and economic reform. Conflicts came to a head in September 1993 when President Yeltsin dissolved the Russian parliament (the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet}; some deputies and their allies rebelled and were suppressed only through military intervention.
On December 12, 1993, three-fifths of Russian voters ratified a new constitution proposed by Yeltsin, and representatives were elected to a new legislature. Under the new constitution the president, who is elected in a national vote and can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms, is vested with significant powers. As Russia's head of state, the president is empowered to appoint the chairman of the government (prime minister), key judges, and cabinet members. The president is also commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and can declare martial law or a state of emergency. When the legislature fails to pass the president's legislative initiatives, he may issue decrees that have the force of law.
Under the new constitution the Federal Assembly became the country's legislature. It consists of the Federation Council (an upper house in which each of Russia's administrative divisions has two representatives) and the State Duma (a 450-member lower house). The president's nominee for chairman of the government is subject to approval by the Duma, but if it persists in rejecting a nominee the president may dissolve it and call new elections. All legislation must first pass the State Duma before being considered by the Federation Council. A presidential veto of a bill can be overridden by the legislature with a two-thirds majority. With a two-thirds majority (and approval by the Russian Constitutional Court), the legislature may remove the president from office for treason or other serious criminal offences. The Federation Council must approve all presidential appointments to the country's highest judicial bodies (Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, and Supreme Arbitration Court).
The constitution provides for welfare protection, access to social security, pensions, free health care, and affordable housing. The constitution also guarantees local self-governance, though national law takes precedence over regional and local laws. The constitution also enumerates many areas that either are administered jointly by the regions and the central government or are the exclusive preserve of the central government. In the decade after the constitution's enactment, the government implemented several measures to reduce the power and influence of regional governments and governors; for example, in 2000 President Vladimir Putin created seven federal districts above the regional level to increase the central government's power over the regions.
Regional and Local Government
Under the Russian constitution the central government retains significant authority, but regional and local governments exercise authority over municipal property and policing, and they can impose regional taxes. Owing to a lack of assertive- ness by the central government, Russia's regional and local governments exerted considerable power in the initial years after the passage of the 1993 constitution. However, the power of the country's administrative divisions was diluted in 2000 when seven federal districts (Central, Far East, North-West, Siberia, Southern, Urals, and Volga), each with its own presidential envoy, were established by the central government. The envoys were given the power to implement federal law and to coordinate communication between the president and the regional governors. Legally, the envoys in federal districts had solely the power of communicating the executive guidance of the federal president. In practice, however, the guidance has served more as directives, as the president was able to use the envoys to enforce presidential authority over the regional governments.
Legislation lias further affirmed the power of the federal government over the regions. Legislation enacted in 2004 permitted the president to appoint the regional governors, who earlier were elected. In the first decade of the twenty- first century, the country began to undergo administrative change aimed at subordinating smaller regions to neighbouring members of the federation.
In practice the powers of local governments vary considerably. Some local authorities, particularly in urban centres, exercise significant power and are responsible for taxation and the licensing of businesses. Moscow and St Petersburg have particularly strong local governments; both possess a tax base and a structure that dwarf the country's other regions. Local councils in smaller communities are commonly rubber-stamp agencies, accountable to the city administrator, who is appointed by the regional governor. In the mid-1990s municipal government was restructured: city councils (dumas), city mayors, and city administrators replaced former city soviets.
Justice
Russia's highest judicial body is the Supreme Court, which supervises the activities of all other judicial bodies and serves as the final court of appeal. In 1991 a Constitutional Court was established to review Russian laws and treaties and to rule on the constitutionality of laws. The Constitutional Court is presided over by 19 judges, who are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council. Appointed to life terms, judges for both the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court must be at least 25 years of age and hold a law degree. The Russian legal system has attempted to overcome the repression practised during the Soviet era hy requiring public trials and guaranteeing a defence for the accused. The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation rules on commercial disputes.