is known as architecture. People
who practice architecture are called
architects. Architects express an artistic
vision through the size, shape, color,
materials, and style of a buildings elements.
But unlike painters or sculptors,
who can create a work of art for its own
sake, architects must design a building
for a specific purpose. The architect can
produce a work of art, but it must also
be functional.
Elements of Design
The architect must consider how a
structure will be used and by whom. An
apartment building, a palace, a hospital,
a museum, an airport, and a sports arena
all have different building requirements.
Another factor in the design is the ideas
the structure should communicate. For
example, some buildings are designed to
impress people with a display of power
and wealth. Others are intended to
make everyone feel welcome.
Other factors are the location and surrounding
environment, including
weather, and the cost of materials. And
above all the architect must create a
stable structure.Walls and roofs can
buckle, crack, or collapse if they are not
properly designed. Over the centuries, as
people discovered building techniques
that worked, those features became standard
elements of design.
The arch was one of the first elements of
this kind. It is a curved structure used to
span an opening and support loads from
above. It allowed builders to create larger
doorways and other openings in walls.
The vault is a continuous arrangement
of arches, usually forming a ceiling or
roof. Another common support element
is the truss, or frame composed of triangular
sections.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 167
Materials
Building materials are chosen based on
many factors, including their appearance,
strength, availability, and cost.
Stone, brick, wood, and concrete have
been used for thousands of years. Stone
has often been used for large monuments
because it lasts a long time and is
easy to carve. But it is difficult to cut
and transport, and it is too weak for
certain support functions. Brick resists
fire and is easy to produce, transport,
and lay. Wood is very easy to acquire,
transport, and work. But it burns easily,
can develop mold, and may be eaten by
termites. Concrete is made by mixing
cement, water, and small pieces of sand
and stones. It can be poured into molds
to create various shapes, and it hardens
into a solid, fire-resistant material.
A major advance came in the 1800s with
the use of cast iron and then steel for
support elements. These materials are
fire-resistant, can be formed into many
shapes, and can produce very strong, tall
structures. Builders also began embedding
steel rods in concrete to make the
concrete stronger.
History
The earliest buildings were simple structures
made of materials that were easy to
find. Eventually people began to live in
large groups and form communities. As
they did so their buildings became more
elaborate. The Great Pyramids of the
ancient Egyptians were enormous stone
A pyramid in Saqqarah, Egypt, was built
for an ancient Egyptian king.
168 Architecture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
tombs for their leaders. In ancient times
people in what is now Iraq built huge
brick temple towers, called ziggurats,
that were shaped like pyramids with
several levels rising in steps.
The traditional architecture of China
also developed in ancient times. It reflects
a deep feeling for the harmony and order
in nature.Traditional temples and houses
are built chiefly of wood and decorated
with tiles. The pagoda, a tower stretching
toward heaven, developed from the stupa
of ancient India. The stupa was a
dome-shaped monument, usually built
over the remains of a holy person.
Ancient Greece and Rome
The ancient Greeks and Romans established
what became known as the classical
style inWestern architecture. The
Greeks built simple structures of marble
and stone. They developed three
stylescalled Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthianidentified by the type of
columns they use as a basic unit. Each
type of column had a special design,
called a capital, at the top. These styles
have been used inWestern architecture
ever since. A Greek temple was rectangular
and had a porch, called a portico,
at each end. Lines of columns supported
the roof. An outstanding example is the
Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens.
The ancient Romans used round arches
and other structural methods that
allowed them to build enormous public
buildings. An amphitheater was a large
round or oval arena surrounded by several
rings of seats at different levels. One
of the most famous amphitheaters, the
Colosseum, was built in Rome in about
AD 70. A Roman basilica was a rectangular
public building with a raised platform
at one or both ends. The early
Christians adopted the shape of the
basilica for their churches.
Middle Ages
As Christianity spread throughout
Europe during the Middle Ages (about
AD 500 to 1500), many new churches
were built. In the east, Eastern Orthodox
Christianity was practiced in the
Byzantine Empire. A typical Byzantinestyle
church had a large dome on top of
a square building. Inside were marble
pillars and much decoration. The most
famous building in this style is the
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, completed
in 537. As the Eastern Orthodox
church spread to Greece, eastern
Europe, and Russia, domed churches
were built there too.
U.S. architects
copied ancient
Roman styles
in their
designs for
the U.S.
Capitol and
many other
government
buildings.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 169
Cordoba, Spain (700s900s). In
southern Asia, Islamic architecture came
to include Hindu and Persian elements
too. White marble and red sandstone
were often used. A famous example of
this style is the Taj Mahal, a tomb built
in Agra, India, in the 1600s.
Renaissance, Baroque, and
Later Styles
A period called the Renaissance began in
Italy in the 1300s. Renaissance architects
revived classical Greek and Roman
styles, using columns, round arches, and
domes. Among the famous Italian
Renaissance architects were Filippo
Brunelleschi, Bramante, Leon Battista
Alberti, and Andrea Palladio. The
Renaissance style spread from Italy to
the rest of Europe.
Baroque architecture became popular in
southern Europe in the 1600s. It
emphasized dramatic and elaborate
decorations, vivid colors, and luxurious
materials. In France and England the
baroque was more subdued and was
often mixed with the classical style.
In the 1700s some European architects
returned to a simpler style called neoclassicism
(or new classicism). In
England the ancient form of the Roman
villa was adapted to suburban and country
houses. In the 1800s Gothic styles
became popular again in England and
the United States. Renaissance and
baroque styles were also used in the
United States for houses and public
buildings.
Modern Developments
The growing population and rising cost
of land in cities in the late 1800s made
it necessary to put tall buildings on
small lots. As buildings got taller the