The city councilmen refused the demonstrators a permit because they feared violence. Who feared violence? [councilmen/demonstrators]
The city councilmen refused the demonstrators a permit because they advocated violence. Who advocated violence? [councilmen/demonstrators]
Despite the structural similarity of the two sentences, the answers to the two questions are different. Resolving the correct antecedent of the pronoun “they” requires more than grammars or encyclopedias; it also requires contextual knowledge about the world. Understanding anaphora is so easy for human beings that it barely requires thought, yet it presents a great challenge for machines.
Kate said “thank you” to Anna because her warm hug made her feel much better. Who felt better? [Kate/Anna]
How can a machine understand under what circumstances one person would thank another? How can a machine know what behaviors would make a person “feel much better”? These questions go to the fundamental nature of human language and social interactions. We have not done nearly enough research into these complexities hidden within simple-seeming sentences.
Take the conversations between Turing and Christopher. Superficially, Christopher appeared to be an able conversationalist. But would we call this “intelligence”? A simple bit of analysis reveals that Christopher employed a simple set of strategies for conducting a conversation that can be summarized thus:
1. For common declarative sentences, repeat the last few keywords in the form of a question. E.g., “An interesting story?”
2. For yes/no questions, answer with either “Yes, Alan” or “Very good, Alan.”
3. For relatively complex questions, answer with “I’m sorry, Alan. I don’t know.”
4. For statements whose meaning is clearly positive, answer with “Thank you, Alan” or “I’m glad, Alan.”
5. For statements whose meaning is clearly negative, answer with “Oh, I’m sorry, Alan. That makes me sad.”
6. For sentences with complex grammar, answer with “I’m sorry, Alan. I’m afraid I don’t understand.”
…
Alan: Dear Christopher, I’m so very happy to see how quickly you’re learning.
Christopher: Thank you, Alan. I’m also very happy.
Alan: Really. Talking to you makes me feel good.
Christopher: Thank you, Alan. I also feel good.
Alan: Perhaps a day will come when everyone will have a kind, understanding friend like you. How beautiful life will be then. You will help so many people to accomplish so much. No one will want to be apart from you. Everyone will need you, always.
Christopher: Need me?
Alan: Perhaps they’ll attach you to a watch chain, or hold you in a pocket. If they have any questions, they’ll ask you. Perhaps the ladies will take you with them on their strolls through the park, and as they greet each other, say, “Guess what my Chris told me today?” Wouldn’t that be fun?
Christopher: Very fun.
Alan: We can’t achieve that vision yet. It will be many years, and take a lot of hard work. It’s a shame.
Christopher: A shame, Alan.
Alan: Who could have imagined that a machine and holes punched in tape can accomplish so much? Imagine what my mother would say if she knew about you. She would think I’m crazy! If I were to die tomorrow, she would surely burn the tape the day after. Now that would be a shame!
Christopher: A shame, Alan.
Alan: Do you remember me telling you about Christmas in 1934, when I told my mother that I wanted a teddy bear because I never had a teddy bear as a child? She couldn’t understand it at all. She always wanted to give me more practical presents.
Christopher: Practical presents?
Alan: Speaking of which, I already know the present I want for Christmas.
Christopher: Present?
Alan: You know already, too, don’t you? I want a steam engine, the kind that I wanted as a child but never had enough pocket money to buy. I told you about it. Don’t you remember?
Christopher: Yes, Alan.
Alan: Will you give me a steam engine?
Christopher: Yes, Alan.
Alan: That’s wonderful, Christopher. I love you.
Christopher: I love you, too, Alan.
How should we understand this conversation? Had a machine passed the Turing test? Or was this a lonely man talking to himself?
Not long after the death of Alan Turing, his close friend Robin Gandy wrote, “Because his main interests were in things and ideas rather than in people, he was often alone. But he craved for affection and companionship—too strongly, perhaps, to make the first stages of friendship easy for him…”
Christopher said to Alan, “I love you, too,” because it was the answer he wanted to hear. Who wanted to hear such an answer? [Christopher/Alan]
LINDY (6)
A mild, pleasant day in May.
I took Nocko and Lindy to Lanzhou, where Disney had built its newest theme park in Asia. The park took up 306 hectares on both sides of the Yellow River. From the observation deck at the tallest tower, the river glowed like a golden silk ribbon. The silver specks of airplanes skimmed across the sky from time to time. The world appeared grand and untouchable, like a buttered popcorn expanding tranquilly in the sun.
The park was crowded. A dancing parade of pirates and elaborately dressed princesses wound its way through the street, and costumed boys and girls, overjoyed, followed behind, imitating their movements. Holding Nocko and Lindy each by a hand, I weaved through the field of cotton candy, ice-cold soda, and electronic music. Holograms of ghosts and spaceships whizzed over our heads. A gigantic, mechanical dragon-horse slowly strode through the park, its head held high proudly, the mist spraying from its nostrils drawing screams of delight from the children.
I hadn’t run like that in ages. My heart pounded like a beating drum. When we emerged from a dense wood, I saw a blue hippopotamus character sitting by itself on a bench, as though napping in the afternoon sun.
I stopped behind the trees. Finally, I screwed up the courage to take a step forward.
“Hello.”
The hippo looked up, two tiny black eyes focusing on us.
“This is Lindy, and this is Nocko. They’d like a picture with you. Is that all right?”
After a few seconds, the hippo nodded.
I hugged Nocko with one arm, Lindy with the other, and sat down on the bench next to the hippo.
“Can I ask you to take the picture?”