In attempting to guide Japan to the Buddhist dharma as he interpreted it, Nichiren drew great criticism for his strong-willed and uncompromising attitude. In one treatise Nichiren wrote that the unrest in Japan was caused by the chaotic state of religious belief, a condition that could be corrected only by adopting the teachings of the Lotus Sutra. He taught that if people turned to this sutra, they would realize their true buddha nature, perceive that suffering is illusion, and see that this world is a paradise. If human beings—i.e., the Japanese—did not follow the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, however, natural disasters and invasions would result. Moreover, Nichiren, confident of the righteousness of his cause, attacked the Shingon and Amida Buddhist groups for neglecting Shakyamuni, the true Buddha of the Lotus Sutra; and he attacked Zen for placing stress only upon Shakyamuni’s historical form. He went so far as to declare that “the Nembutsu is hell, Zen is a devil, Shingon is the nation’s ruin.” These sharp criticisms led Nichiren to be exiled twice and almost brought his execution, from which he was—according to his own account and the belief of his adherents—miraculously saved.
Nichiren advocated two main religious practices. The first is the worship of the honzon (or gohonzon), a mandala (symbolic diagram) designed by Nichiren, which represents both the buddha nature that is in all humans and the three forms of the Buddha Shakyamuni. The second is the daimoku (Japanese: “sacred title”), the repetition—both orally and in every action of the believer—of the phrase “Namu Myōhō renge kyō" (Japanese: “Salvation to the Lotus Sutra”) to affirm belief in the teaching and efficacy of the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren also taught that there should be a sacred place of ordination (Japanese: kaidan) where the believer could receive training in the doctrines of the Lotus Sutra. This sacred place might be seen as wherever the believer in the Lotus Sutra lives, for there is the Buddhist truth. The honzon, daimoku, and kaidan, “the three great secret laws” (or “mysteries”), are regarded as the essential teaching of Nichiren.
Nichiren’s fervent faith brought him wide fame and many devotees, and at his death he chose six disciples to continue his work. They developed the Nichiren-shu (Japanese: “School of Nichiren”), which still controls the main temple founded by Nichiren at Mount Minobu. One of his disciples, Nikkō, established the Nichiren shō-shū (Japanese: “True School of Nichiren”), which taught that Nichiren, not Shakyamuni, was the saviour and that the mandala painted by Nichiren was alone efficacious in saving mankind. In the 20th century these schools gained many devotees.
Within the Nichiren-shū the Reiyū-kai (Japanese: “Association of the Friend of the Spirit”) arose in 1925. This group, which preaches a combination of ancestor worship and Nichiren’s doctrines, places faith not in the Buddha or in bodhisattvas but in the mandala, in which all saving power is concentrated. The Risshō-Kōsei-kai (Japanese: “Society for Establishing Righteousness and Friendly Relations”), which split from Reiyū-kai in 1938, teaches the recitation of the daimoku as an affirmation of faith in the teaching of the Lotus Sutra and the worship of the Buddha Shakyamuni. Like Reiyū-kai, it also allows the veneration of ancestral spirits.
Risshō-Kōsei-kai gained many converts after World War II, but its success was soon eclipsed by Sōka-gakkai (Japanese: “Value Creation Society”), the lay movement of Nichiren Shōshū. Founded by Makiguchi Tsunesaburō (1871–1944) in 1930, Sōka-gakkai was dedicated to educational research and the extension of Nichiren Shōshū. Its founder insisted on the practical values of worldly gain and happiness as well as the attainment of goodness, beauty, and world peace; he taught that Nichiren was to be worshiped as the True Buddha predicted in the Lotus Sutra. The members also fervently practice daimoku and worship the honzon as the repository of the power of all buddhas and bodhisattvas. After World War II, Sōka-gakkai, under the leadership of Toda Jōsei (1900–58), grew rapidly through a technique of evangelism called shakubuku (Japanese: “break and subdue”), in which the resistance of the other person is destroyed by forceful argument. Although its practice of shakubuku was curtailed by Ikeda Daisaku, the society’s third president, Sōka-gakkai continued to grow throughout the second half of the 20th century and expanded into other countries, including the United States. Thus, Nichiren’s teaching and personality are still strong influences today. Dhyana (Chan/Zen)
The Dhyana (Sanskrit: “Meditation”; Chinese: Chan; Japanese: Zen) school of Buddhism emphasizes meditation as the way to awareness of ultimate reality, an important practice of Buddhism from its origin in India and one found in other Indian schools, such as Yogachara. Chan, which was also influenced by Daoism, promotes special meditation training techniques and doctrines. Despite Indian influences, Chan is generally considered a specifically Chinese product, a view reinforced by the fact that 4th–5th-century Chinese Buddhist monks, such as Huiyuan and Sengzhao, taught beliefs and practices similar to those of the Chan school before the traditional date of its arrival in China.
Most Chinese texts name a South Indian monk, Bodhidharma, who arrived in China about 520 ce, as the founder of the Chan school. Bodhidharma is regarded as the first Chan patriarch and the 28th patriarch of the Indian meditation school. The Indian school began with the monk Kashyapa, who received Buddha Shakyamuni’s supreme teaching, which is found in the Lankavatara-sutra (“Descent to the Island of Lanka”). The sutra teaches that all beings possess a buddha nature, often equated with shunya (Sanskrit: “the void”) in Chan, and that realization of this fact is enlightenment (Chinese: Wu; Japanese: satori). The truly enlightened one cannot explain this ultimate truth or reality, nor can books, words, concepts, or teachers, for it is beyond the ordinary duality of subject and object and must be realized in direct personal experience.
Bodhidharma was succeeded as patriarch of the Chan school by Huike, and this line of transmission continued to the fifth patriarch, Hengren, in the 7th century. After Hengren’s death a schism occurred between the adherents of the Northern school of Shenxiu, which held that enlightenment must be attained gradually, and the Southern school of Huineng, which taught that true wisdom, as undifferentiated, must be attained suddenly and spontaneously. Huineng’s Southern school claimed to de-emphasize rituals and the study of texts and to rely on teaching passed from master to pupil. Some proponents of the Southern school also adopted an iconoclastic attitude toward the Buddha, maintaining that if all things contain the buddha nature, then the Buddha could rightfully be equated with a dung heap. The Southern school overcame its rival, and standard Chinese Chan texts therefore name Huineng as the true and only sixth patriarch. Huineng’s Liuzu Tanching (Chinese: “Platform Scripture of the Sixth Patriarch”) became a key text of the Chan school.