The primary Buddhist monument, both in early and present-day Buddhism, is the stupa, originally a reliquary mound or tumulus. Although the cult of the stupa is attested archaeologically only from the 3rd century bce onward, the canonical tradition links this cult to the great events associated with Shakyamuni’s decease. Mythologically, the stupa is the supreme symbol of the Buddha in his fully realized state beyond the bonds of mortality. Carved stonework preserved from the 2nd century bce onward, especially from the ancient stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi in India, reveals the great Buddha myth in visual form. The scenes on these stupas depict not only the great events of the Buddha’s last life but also those of his previous births as well.
Buddha assaulted by Mara and his demon horde, high-relief sculpture from Gandhara; in the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, Netherlands.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, Netherlands
In the earliest period symbols were used to represent the figure of the Buddha in scenes from his life as Shakyamuni—a tree indicating his enlightenment, a wheel his first preaching, and a miniature stupa his final nirvana—because the sanctity of his being was thought to be too great to be portrayed physically. The tree cult involved ancient pre-Buddhist traditions that coalesced with the act of the enlightenment as performed beneath the pipal or bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa). The wheel was the symbol both of the universal monarch and of the Buddha as universal guide and teacher. The stupa cult, with its extraordinary preoccupation with human relics, may have been a special Buddhist development related to the belief in nirvana as a supramundane state. It is in marked contrast to the usual Hindu (Brahmanic) horror of mortal remains as unclean.
ShakyamuniShakyamuni, wood sculpture with lacquer, inlaid glass, and gilding, from Myanmar (Burma), 18th–19th century; in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.Photograph by Beesnest McClain. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, gift from Doris Duke's Southeast Asian Art Collection, M.2003.231.3a-b
ShakyamuniBuddha Shakyamuni, metal, copper alloy with traces of paint, Uttar Pradesh, India, late 6th century; in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.Photograph by Howard Cheng. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, gift of the Michael J. Connell Foundation, M.70.17
Reclining Buddha statue, Ajanta Caves, north-central Maharashtra state, India.© davidevison/FotoliaSculptural representations of the Buddha appeared in northwestern India from about the 1st century bce, and stereotyped images of him soon became the model for use throughout Asia. Common types of Buddha image are those that represent his calling the earth to witness against Mara by touching it with the fingertips of the right hand, the meditating Buddha protected by a cobra’s hood, and the Buddha lying on his right side as he enters final nirvana. The Buddha protected by a cobra’s hood represents a coalescing of the Buddha myth with the pre-Buddhist cult of snakes as protecting divinities (the naga cult) and derives from a legend in which the Buddha was protected from a rainstorm by a great naga king named Mucilinda.
The Buddha image was adapted to all the main scenes of Shakyamuni’s life. While the later stupas in India and Southeast Asia achieved ever-greater artistic splendour, they remained the symbols of Shakyamuni’s transcendence and preserved the iconographic traditions concerning scenes from his previous lives as well as his last life. Famous examples are Amaravati in South India, dating from about the 3rd century ce (some of its stone carvings are preserved in the British Museum), and Borobudur, which was built in Java between 778 and 850 ce and embodies Mahayana (and perhaps Vajrayana) components in its symbolic structure. It also displays the close association between later developments and the great Buddha myth of Shakyamuni.
ShakyamuniSeated Buddha Shakyamuni, gilt bronze, China, Liao dynasty, 965–1025; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York.Photograph by Katie Chao. Brooklyn Museum, New York, gift of the Asian Art Council in memory of Mahmood T. Diba; Mary Smith Dorward Fund, 1999.42
Temples and monasteries hewn out of rock were used by Buddhists at least from the 2nd century bce until the 8th century ce and probably later. Early cave monasteries, famous for their temples with internal stupas set in a kind of sanctuary, are Bhaja, Bhedsa, and Karli, all within reach of Mumbai (Bombay). Other cave monasteries famous for the development of the iconography of the Buddha are Kanheri (near Mumbai), Nasik, Ellora, and, especially, Ajanta, which contains fine murals dating from the 1st century bce to the 9th century ce. These mainly represent Shakyamuni in his last life and in his previous lives as a compassionate bodhisattva. Magnificent cave temples and monasteries were established in many other Buddhist areas, especially in China.
The iconographic traditions of Shakyamuni thrive to this day chiefly in Sri Lanka and the Southeast Asian countries where Theravada Buddhism prevails. In the Mahayana countries of Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, and Korea, the same iconographic traditions are observed whenever an image or painting of Shakyamuni is required. So long as Buddhism remains, the visual representations of Shakyamuni will continue to be meaningful.
Shakyamuni attended by animalsBuddha Shakyamuni attended by animals in the Parileyaka forest, metal sculpture of gilt copper alloy with lacquer, from Thailand, late 19th century; in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 115.57 × 51.44 × 47.63 cm.Photograph by Howard Cheng. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Mrs. James E. Bentley Bequest, AC1993.53.1
Celestial buddhas and bodhisattvas
Literary references
The starting point of all the later-developed traditions of the Buddha was the great Buddha myth. The early idea of a series of buddhas in time, first 7 and later 24, soon allowed for the idea of a future buddha Maitreya, whose cult became popular throughout the Buddhist world. Next came the tendency to focus attention on other buddhas in buddha lands distributed through endless space.
In the Indian context the most important of the new buddhas that came to be recognized were gradually systematized into a set of five Celestial or Dhyani Buddhas. The buddha who was usually placed at the centre of the group was Vairochana, the Illuminator, the universal sage or chakravartin buddha. He is often depicted using the gesture of preaching or by the symbol of the wheel of dharma. The buddha of the east, Akshobhya (the Imperturbable), is iconographically associated with Shakyamuni in the “earth-witness” posture. The cult of the Imperturbable buddha probably derives from the cult at Bodh Gaya, the historical place of the Buddha’s enlightenment. The buddha of the south was Ratnasambhava, the Jewel-Born, who represents the Buddha’s selfless giving, indicated by the gesture of giving gifts—right hand open, pointing outward and downward. Amitabha was the buddha of the western paradise, around whom an important devotional cult developed. The buddha of the north was Amoghasiddhi, “Infallible Success,” who represents the Buddha’s miraculous power to save, indicated by the hand gesture of giving protection—right hand raised, palm outward and pointing upward. These five celestial buddhas seem—in the early stages of their development—to have been celestial manifestations of various aspects of Shakyamuni.
Ratnasambhava, the Dhyani Buddha of the south, surrounded by the eight mahabodhisattvas, Nepalese painting.Holle Verlag
Two of these buddhas developed an important mythology and cult of their own quite apart from their role in the group of five Dhyani Buddhas. The first of these was Amitabha, the great buddha who presided over the western paradise and became the central figure in the traditions of Pure Land Buddhism. The Pure Land tradition, which probably began in northwestern India about the beginning of the Common Era, was most successful in China and Japan, where it became the dominant Buddhist tradition. The second of the five great buddha figures with a very important independent history was Vairochana. This “central” buddha developed an important role throughout the Buddhist world and emerged as the central buddha figure in the Vajrayana traditions of Japan, particularly Shingon.