CONCLUSION: INVENTING
THE MAD EMPEROR
On Caligula’s “madness”: Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 1.20.9, 3.21.5, 3.19.3; Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 76, 93; Pliny, Natural History, 36.113; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.277, 19.1, 19.4–5, 19.11, 19.193. Positive assessments: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 263; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.208. Tacitus on Caligula: Agricola, 13.2; Annals, 6.20.1, 6.45.3, 11.3.2, 15.72.2; Histories, 4.42.5, 4.48.1. The “madness” of other emperors: Dio, Roman History, 59.1.2; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.259; Tacitus, Annals, 6.46.1; Dio, Roman History, 63.27.2. Suetonius on Caligula’s mental illness: Gaius Caligula, 50.2–3, 51.1; cf. Dio, Roman History, 59.26.5. Suetonius’s Life of Gaius Caligula in the reign of Commodus: Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Commodus, On imperial rule in late antiquity: Kolb, Herrscherideologie. On measures taken by Claudius: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.246; Suetonius, Claudius, 11; Dio, Roman History, 60.3.5, 60.4.1 and 5, 60.5.1 and 4, 60.22.3. The conspiracy of Vinicianus and Camillus: Dio, Roman History, 60.15–16; Suetonius, Claudius, 13.2. Security measures: Dio, Roman History, 60.3.3. Poisoning of Claudius: Tacitus, Annals, 12.66–67; Dio, Roman History, 61(60).34. On Seneca: Seneca, On Consolation (Ad Polybium de Consolatione), 13.2; cf. Apocolocyntosis, passim.
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