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Appendix A
SYNTACTIC ENVIRONMENTS FOR IDENTIFYING NATURAL LANGUAGE PRESUPPOSITIONS IN ENGLISH
Our purpose in presenting the material in this appendix is to indicate the scope and complexity of the natural language phenomenon of presuppositions. In addition, by listing some of the more common syntactic environments in which presuppositions occur, we provide an opportunity to practice for those students who are interested in sharpening their intuitions in recognizing presuppositions. The list of syntactic environments is not exhaustive, and we will not attempt to present any of the theories which have been proposed by different linguists, logicians, semanticists, or philosophers to account for presuppositions. Rather, our objective is more practical.
At the present time, presuppositions are a major focus of study for a number of linguists, especially linguists who consider themselves Generative Semanticists. In compiling this list of syntactic environments, we have borrowed heavily from the work of Lauri Kartunnen. See the Bibliography for sources.
1. Simple Presuppositions.
These are syntactic environments in which the existence of some entity is required for the sentence to make sense (to be either true or false).
a. Proper Names.
(George Smith left the party early.) -> (There exists someone named George Smith.) where -> means presupposes.
b. Pronouns: her, him, they.
(I saw him leave.) -> (There exists some male [i.e., him].)
c. Definite Descriptions.
(I liked the woman with the silver earrings.) -> (There exists a woman with silver
earrings.)
d. Generic Noun Phrases.
Noun arguments standing for a whole class. (If wombats have no trees in which to climb, they are sad.) -> (There are wombats.)
e. Some Quantifiers: all, each, every, some, many, few, none.
(If some of the dragons show up, I'm leaving.) -> (There are dragons.)
2. Complex Presuppositions.
Cases in which more than the simple existence of an element is presupposed,
a. Relative Clauses.
Complex noun arguments, with a noun followed by a phrase beginning with who, which, or that.
(Several of the women who had spoken to you left the shop.) -> (Several women had spoken to you.)
b. Subordinate Clauses of Time.
Classes identified by the cue words before, after, during, as, since, prior, when, while.
(If the judge was home when I stopped by her house, she didn't answer her door.) -> (I stopped by the judge's house.)
c. Cleft Sentence.
Sentences beginning with It was\is noun argument.
(It was the extra pressure which shattered the window.) -> (Something shattered the window.)
d. Pseudo-Cleft Sentences.
(Identified by the form What [Sentence] is [sentence].
(What Sharon hopes to do is to become well liked.) -> (Sharon hopes to do something.)
e. Stressed Sentences.
Voice stress (If Margaret has talked to THE POLICE, we're finished.) -> (Margaret has talked to someone.)
f. Complex Adjectives: new, old, former, present, previous.
(If Fredo wears his new ring, I'll be blown away.) -> (Fredo had/has an old ring.)
g. Ordinal Numerals: first, second, third, fourth, another.
(If you can find a third clue in this letter, I'll make you a mosquito pie.) -> (There are two clues already found.)
h. Comparatives: -er, more, less.
(If you know better riders than Sue does, tell me who they are.) -> (Sue knows [at least] one rider.)
(If you know better riders than Sue is, tell me who they are.) -> (Sue is a rider.)
i. Comparative As: As x as ... .
(If her daughter is as funny as her husband is, we'll all enjoy ourselves.) -> (Her husband is funny.)
j. Repetitive Cue Words: too, also, either, again, back.
(If she tells me that again, I'll kiss her.) -> (She has told me that before.)
k. Repetitive Verbs and Adverbs.
Verbs and adverbs beginning with re-, e.g., repeatedly, return, restore, retell, replace, renew.
(If he returns before I leave, I want to talk to him.) -> (He has been here before.)
l. Qualifiers: only, even, except, just.
(Only Amy saw the bank robbers.) ->(Amy saw the bank robbers.)
m. Change-of-Place Verbs: come, go, leave, arrive, depart, enter.
(If Sam has left home, he is lost.) -> (Sam has been at home.)
n. Change-of-Time Verbs and Adverbs: begin, end, stop, start, continue, proceed, already, yet, still, anymore.
(My bet is that Harry will continue to smile.) -> (Harry has been smiling.)
o. Change-of-State Verbs: change, transform, turn into, become.
(If Mae turns into a hippie, I'll be surprised.) -> (Mae is not now a hippie.)
p. Factive Verbs and Adjectives: odd, aware, know, realize, regret.
(It is odd that she called Maxine at midnight.) -> (She called Maxine at midnight.)
q. Commentary Adjectives and Adverbs: lucky, fortunately, far out, out of sight, groovy, bitchin'. . . innocently, happily, necessarily.
(It's far out that you understand your dog's feelings.) -> (You understand your dog's feelings.)
r. Counterfactual Conditional Clauses.
Verbs having subjunctive tense.
(If you had listened to me and your father, you wouldn't be in the wonderful position you're in now.) -> (You didn't listen to me and your father.)
s. Contrary-to-Expectation: should.
(If you should [happen to] decide you want to talk to me, I'll be hanging out in the city dump.) -> (I don't expect you to want to talk to me.)
t. Selectional Restrictions.
(If my professor gets pregnant, I'll be disappointed.) -> (My professor is a woman.)
u. Questions.
(Who ate the tapes?) -> (Someone ate the tapes.)
(I want to know who ate the tapes.) -> (Someone ate the tapes.)
v. Negative Questions.
(Didn't you want to talk to me?) -> (I thought that you wanted to talk to me.)
w. Rhetorical Questions.
(Who cares whether you show up or not?) -> (Nobody cares whether you show up or not.)
x. Spurious: not.
(I wonder if you're not being a little unfair.) -> (I Think that you're being unfair.)