1.76 Most names of animals are used to refer to both male and female animals, for example cat, elephant, horse, monkey, and sheep.
In some cases there are different words that refer specifically to male animals or female animals, for example a male horse is a stallion and a female horse is a mare.
In other cases the general name for the animal is also the specific word for males or females: dog also refers more specifically to male dogs, duck also refers more specifically to female ducks.
Many of these specific words are rarely used, or used mainly by people who have a special interest in animals, such as farmers or vets.
Here is a list of some common specific words for male and female animals:
stallion
mare
~
bull
cow
~
cock
hen
~
dog
bitch
~
drake
duck
~
fox
vixen
~
gander
goose
~
lion
lioness
~
ram
ewe
~
buck
hind
stag
doe
~
tiger
tigress
~
boar
sow
Referring to activities and processes: -ing nouns
1.77 When you want to talk about an action, activity, or process in a general way, you can use a noun that has the same form as the -ing participle of a verb.
These nouns are called different things in different grammars: gerunds, verbal nouns, or -ing forms. In this grammar they are referred to as -ing nouns.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish an -ing noun from an -ing participle, and it is usually not necessary to do so. However, there are times when it is clearly a noun, for example when it is the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Swimming is a great sport.
The emphasis was on teaching rather than learning.
The closing of so many mills left thousands unemployed.
Some people have never done any public speaking.
The spelling of -ing nouns is explained in the Reference Section. The use of -ing adjectives is explained in paragraphs 2.63 to 2.76.
uncountable nouns
1.78 Because -ing nouns refer to activities in a general way, they are usually uncountable nouns; that is, they have only one form, cannot be used with numbers, and do not usually have a determiner in front of them.
For more information on uncountable nouns, see paragraphs 1.23 to 1.33.
1.79 You often use an -ing noun because it is the only noun form available for certain verbs, such as eat, hear, go, come, and bless. Other verbs have related nouns that are not -ing nouns: for example see and sight, arrive and arrival, depart and departure.
Eating is an important part of a cruise holiday.
…loss of hearing in one ear.
Only 6 per cent of children receive any further training when they leave school.
used with adjectives
1.80 If you want to describe the action expressed by the noun, you use one or more adjectives or nouns in front of it.
He served a jail sentence for reckless driving.
The police need better training in dealing with the mentally ill.
He called for a national campaign against under-age drinking.
1.81 A few -ing nouns, mostly words for sporting or leisure activities, are much more common than their related verbs. In some cases there is no verb, although it is always possible to invent one. For example, you are more likely to say We went caravanning round France than We caravanned round France.
Here is a list of the commonest of these nouns:
angling
boating
bowling
canoeing
caravanning
electioneering
hang-gliding
mountaineering
paragliding
shoplifting
shopping
sightseeing
skateboarding
snorkelling
snowboarding
surfing
weightlifting
window-shopping
windsurfing
yachting
Although these words are not always associated with a verb, most of them can be used as -ing participles.
I spent the afternoon window-shopping with Grandma.
countable nouns
1.82 Some -ing nouns that are related to verbs are countable nouns. They generally refer to the result of an action or process, or to an individual instance of it. Sometimes their meaning is not closely related to that of the verb.
Here is a list of the commonest of these nouns:
beginning
being
building
drawing
feeling
finding
hearing
meaning
meeting
offering
painting
saying
setting
showing
sitting
suffering
turning
warning
For more information on countable nouns, see paragraphs 1.15 to 1.22.
Compound nouns: car park, mother-in-law, breakdown
1.83 A single noun is often not enough to refer clearly to a person or thing. When this is the case, a compound noun can be used. A compound noun is a fixed expression that is made from more than one word, and that behaves as a noun.
Some people write out a new address book every January.
How would one actually choose a small personal computer?
Where did you hide the can opener?
…a private swimming pool.
Once it is clear what you are referring to, it is sometimes possible to use just the second word of a two-word compound noun. For example, after mentioning a swimming pool, you can just refer to the pool.
Most compound nouns consist of two words, but some consist of three or more words.
…a vase of lily of the valley.
two words, one word or a hyphen?
1.84 Some compound nouns are written with hyphens instead of spaces between the words.
I’m looking forward to a lie-in tomorrow.
He’s very good at problem-solving.
Judy’s brother-in-law lived with his family.
Some compound nouns, especially very frequent ones, are written as one word.
…patterned wallpaper.
They copied questions from the blackboard.