It was even known for ballets to be staged outdoors, with mock sea battles staged on artificial lakes.
Gradually, as dancers shed their encumbering costumes and stage designs were simplified, dance movement and mime became more important in the depiction of plot and character. Set design and costume were tailored to the ballet’s theme and atmosphere, rather than swamping the choreography with their elaborate opulence. The development of gas lighting meant that magical effects could be created with simple painted scenery, and though wire contraptions were sometimes used to fly the ballerina (as a sylph or bird) across the stage, the development of pointe work (dancing on the toes) meant that the dancer could appear weightless and ethereal without any artificial aids. In place of highly decorative mythological or classical scenes, there were poetic evocations of landscape, and the ballerinas were either dressed in simple white dresses or in colourful national dress. The poet, critic, and librettist Théophile Gautier described the typical “white” or ethereal Romantic ballet as follows:
The twelve marble and gold houses of the Olympians were relegated to the dust of the storehouse and only the romantic forests and valleys lit by the charming German moonlight of Heinrich Heine’s ballads exist.… This new style brought a great abuse of white gauze, of tulle and tarlatans and shadows melted into mist through transparent dresses. White was almost the only colour used.
This unity of dance and design was not to last, however. By the end of the 19th century most of the productions mounted at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg were lavish spectacles in which set and costume had little relevance to the ballet’s theme, being designed simply to please the audiences’ taste for opulence. At the beginning of the 20th century one of the first revolutionary steps that Michel Fokine took in trying to change this state of affairs was to dress his dancers in costumes as nearly authentic as possible—for example, by replacing the prevailing tutu with clinging draperies (as in the Egyptian costumes for Eunice [1908]) and by dispensing with the dancers’ shoes. (Actually, the theatre management did not allow dancers to go barefoot, but they had red toenails painted onto their tights to achieve the same impression.)
Michel Fokine as Perseus in Medusa.Courtesy of the Dance Collection, the New York Public Library at Lincoln Center, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations
This move was part of Fokine’s general commitment to the idea that movement, music, and design should be integrated into an aesthetic and dramatic whole. His collaboration with designers such as Léon Bakst and Alexandre Benois were as important as his musical collaboration with Stravinsky. Sets and costumes not only reflected the period in which the ballet was set but also helped to create the dramatic mood or atmosphere—as in Le Spectre de la rose (1911; “The Spirit of the Rose”), where the exquisite rose-petaled costume of the spectre, or spirit, seemed almost to emit a magical perfume, and where the simple naturalism of the sleeping girl’s bedroom emphasized her dreaming innocence.
Vaslav Nijinsky (far right) performing as the Faun in the premiere of the Ballets Russes's production of L'Après-midi d'un faune (The Afternoon of the Faun) at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, 1912. Léon Bakst designed the scenery and costumes.Edward Gooch—Hulton Archive/Getty Images
In the newly emerging modern dance, experiments with set, lighting, and costume design were also significant. One of the pioneers in this field was Loie Fuller, a solo dancer whose performances in the 1890s and early 1900s consisted of very simple movements with complex visual effects. Swathing herself in yards of diaphanous material, she created elaborate shapes and transformed herself into a variety of magical phenomena. These illusions were enhanced by coloured lights and slide projections playing across the floating material.
Loie Fuller.Courtesy of the Dance Collection, the New York Public Library at Lincoln Center
Elaborate lighting and costumes were also used by Ruth St. Denis, whose dances frequently evoked ancient and exotic cultures. At the opposite extreme Martha Graham, who began her career as a dancer with St. Denis’ company, strove to eliminate all unnecessary ornamentation in her designs. Costumes were made out of simple jersey and cut along stark lines that clearly revealed the dancers’ movements. Simple but dramatic lighting suggested the mood of the piece. Graham also pioneered the use of sculpture in dance works, replacing painted scenery and elaborate props with simple, free-standing structures. These had a number of functions: suggesting, often symbolically, the place or theme of the work; creating new levels and areas of stage space; and also illuminating the overall design of the piece.
While it has remained common for choreographers to use elaborately realistic sets and costumes, as in Kenneth MacMillan’s Romeo and Juliet in 1965, most choreographers have tended to adopt a minimal approach, with costumes and scenery simply suggesting the ballet’s characters and location rather than representing them in detail. One reason for this development has been the move away from narrative to plotless, or formal, works in both ballet and modern dance, where there is no longer any need for visual effects to provide narrative background. Balanchine set many of his works on a bare stage with the dancers dressed only in practice costumes, feeling that this would allow the spectators to see the lines and patterns of the dancers’ movements more clearly.
Set, costume, and lighting design are important in narrative as well as formal dance in helping the audience maintain the special attention that theatre demands. They can also influence strongly the way in which the choreography is perceived, either by creating a mood (sombre or festive, depending on the colour and ornamentation used) or by strengthening a choreographic image or concept. In Richard Alston’s Wildlife (1984) the geometrically shaped kites suspended from the flies actually inspired some of the dancers’ sharply angled movements as well as making them visually more striking in performance.
Costume, too, can alter the appearance of movement: a skirt can give fuller volume to turns or to high leg extensions, while a close-fitting leotard reveals every detail of the body’s movements. Some choreographers, trying to emphasize the nontheatrical or nonspectacular aspects of dance, have dressed their dancers in ordinary street clothes in order to give a neutral, everyday look to their movements, and they have often dispensed entirely with set and lighting.
Set design and lighting (or their absence) can help to frame the choreography and to define the space in which it appears. The space in which a dance occurs has, in fact, a crucial influence on the way movement is perceived. Thus, a small space can make the movement look bigger (and possibly more cramped and urgent), while a large space can lessen its scale and possibly make it appear more remote. Similarly, a cluttered stage, or one with only a few lighted areas, may make the dance appear compressed, even fragmented, while a clearly lighted, open space may make the movement appear unconfined. Two choreographers who had been most innovative in their use of set and lighting were Alwin Nikolais and Merce Cunningham. The former has used props, lighting, and costumes to create a world of strange, often inhuman shapes—as in his Sanctum (1964). The latter has often worked with sets that almost dominate the dancing, either by filling the stage with a clutter of objects (some of which are simply things taken from the outside world, such as cushions, television sets, chairs, or bits of clothing) or—as in Walkaround Time (1968)—by using elaborate constructions around which the dance takes place, often partly concealed. As with his use of music, Cunningham’s sets were often conceived independently of the choreography and were used to create a complex visual field rather than to reflect the dancing.