Chaudhri, TaraTara Chaudhri.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
While these qualities characterize Indian classical dance in general, there are significant variations in each school. Bharata natyam is perhaps the most delicate and elegant of all the forms. It is traditionally, though not exclusively, performed by women. In the dancer’s typical stance the legs are bent, often turned out at the hips, and the body is held upright. Even in movements where the torso bends or spirals, it remains lifted, never dropped and heavy. The feet perform small stamping movements against the ground; for example, the heel may be lifted and the leg extended to the front or back and then brought back. This is a small movement at some points and at others a larger lunge, but none of the steps travels far off the spot. Stamping movements are also made by raising the foot, bringing it down on the ball, and then bringing down the heel. These quick, shifting steps maintain a complex rhythmic relationship with the musical accompaniment. Sometimes such steps include a light spring from one foot to the other.
While the feet are executing the basic step sequence, the arms, hands, and head are also performing intricate movements. The arms are always supported at the elbow, never loosely hanging, and they may be stretched to the side or above the head or bent at the elbows in many different positions. In executing the mudras, the hands convey different meanings according to the position of the fingers and the way the palms are cupped or splayed. The neck moves from side to side, the head nods or turns, the eyes dart and glance in different directions, and the body tilts or leans. Each of these different movements contributes to the rhythmic and visual complexity of the dance.
Kathakali is a dance-drama performed by men, as it is considered too vigorous and difficult for women (although women may study it and perform certain extracts). The dancers wear elaborate headdresses and costumes as well as extensive makeup. The makeup can take up to four hours to apply and allows the dancer to absorb himself in the role he is about to perform. The basic kathakali stance is a deep bend, with the legs turned in and the feet resting on the outside of the soles, giving the dancer a bandy-legged look. This position allows him to survive the long performances without getting sore feet.
Much kathakali dancing is vigorous. The stamping steps are larger and more energetic than in bharata natyam, the legs are lifted higher, the lunges are deeper, and the jumps are bigger. Generally, the dancers travel farther and with greater agility. The arm, body, and head movements are also more dramatically expressive: the body crouches and twists furiously, the arms make larger, more imitative gestures (as in fight scenes), and the facial expressions are highly exaggerated. (Kathakali dancers have such control over their facial muscles that they can laugh with one side of their faces and cry with the other.) Mudras also help dramatize the story, although they do not always signify the same things as in bharata natyam.
Odissi and manipuri use more sinuous movement, in which the spine and torso are elegantly curved.
Manipuri-style performance of Indian classical dance.Mohan Khokar
The most characteristic element in kathak is the chukra, a brilliant, whipping turn executed on the spot. In this style the feet work closely together, often with one crossed in front of the other and stamping out unusually complex rhythms. The dancer also uses a gliding walk similar to the pas de bourrée in ballet. There is more swaying of the body in kathak than in bharata natyam, and the wearing of a full skirt emphasizes the speed and excitement of the dancer’s turns.
The influence of Indian dance can be seen throughout Asia. In Japan, for example, the dancer makes use of a fan to create an additional repertoire of gestures. It may be opened to suggest the reading of a book, whirled and dropped to the ground to show the falling of leaves, or, appearing above the dancer’s sleeve, used to signify that the Moon has risen. In Java the dancers’ faces remain impassive, but their hand gestures are elaborate, and they also manipulate long, floating scarves to give their movements a weightless, ethereal quality.
bugaku performanceBugaku, a court dance adapted to Japanese tastes from the dance and music of 8th-century China and Korea.G. Haasch/ZEFA
Tribal and ethnic dance
Ballet, modern dance, and Indian classical dance are forms of theatre dance, the dancers usually being highly trained professionals performing for audiences in particular venues and on special occasions. Tribal and ethnic dance, on the other hand, may be characterized by a number of almost opposite features. They are not necessarily the province of trained specialists (although they may be). Such dances may be participatory (i.e., with no real distinction between dancer and spectator), and, while they may take place in special venues or on special occasions, these are often intimately related to the everyday life of the community. Tribal dance
A tribal society is essentially a self-contained system. While it may possess sophisticated cultural and social structures, its technological and economic structures are generally primitive. Consequently, by the late 20th century such societies had become increasingly rare, and many tribal dances had either died or become transformed.
Some tribal dances have been preserved, however, even in cases where tribes have been absorbed into other social structures, as a means of preserving cultural identity and a sense of historical continuity. This is quite common in many African states. A frequently cited case is that of King Sobhuza II, the Ngwenyama (“Lion”) of Swaziland, who in 1966 joined his people in a six-day Incwala, or ritual ceremony. Dressed in animal skins and elaborate plumage, Sobhuza performed dances that would ensure the renewal of the land, the king, and the people.
South African performing a tribal dance in a traditional animal skin costume with elaborate plumage during a ceremonial gathering of regional bands.U. Bagel/ZEFA
In extant tribal societies, such as the Hopi Indians of northeastern Arizona, dance retains most of its traditional form and significance. The Hopi still dance as a form of worship, with specific dances for different ceremonies. Such dances, however, as in any other tradition, have undergone inevitable change and development throughout history, and they cannot be used as accurate evidence of what the tribal dances of early man were like. Generalizing about tribal dance is made difficult not only by the lack of evidence concerning its origins and the rapid dying of extant forms but also by the fact that the term tribal covers so many different kinds of dance. Tribal dances not only vary from one tribe to another but also fall into many different categories, such as weapon dances, fertility dances, Sun- and Moon-worshipping dances, initiation dances, war dances, and hunting dances.