Vladimir Ivanov of the Moiseyev dance company in an exuberant leap during the performance of Polovtsian Dances.MIRA
Of course, even the gestures of ordinary life are inherited from cultural conventions. A smile or a wave of the hand can, in certain non-Western cultures, be taken as a sign of aggression rather than welcome. In the same way, how spectators interpret dance movements depends on the context in which those movements occur and on the particular spectator who interprets them. A fall may signify despair in one context, or to one person, and a sinking into ecstasy in another.
The distinction between abstract and expressive dance is also a highly artificial one, becoming a clear distinction in critical theory but certainly not in actual performance. In even the most dramatic and mimetic dance, the movement is highly stylized and subjected to an abstract aesthetic principle. The structure of the piece is determined as much by formal considerations as by the narrative events. On the other hand, even the most abstract work expresses some emotion or character relationship simply because it is performed by people rather than neutral objects, and often the most highly elaborate dance pattern has some representational function. Changes in attitude toward dance
Critics have argued the question of abstraction and expression largely in relation to theatre dance and also on the assumption that dance is a serious art form. Within recent history, however, this assumption was not always held. In late 19th-century Europe, outside Russia and Denmark, dance was generally regarded as mere entertainment with little aesthetic value. Attitudes to dance both as an art form and as a social activity have, in fact, varied dramatically throughout history. In cultures where it had, or still possesses, religious significance, it is treated with great respect. The ancient Greeks also took dance very seriously, both as an integral part of their drama—which had strong political and social significance—and as part of education. Plato wrote in the Laws that “to sing well and to dance well is to be well educated. Noble dances should confer on the student not only health and agility and beauty, but also goodness of the soul and a well-balanced mind.” Aristotle believed that dance was useful for “purging the young soul of unseemly emotions and preparing for the worthy enjoyment of leisure.”
Kordax dance, Greek vase painting, 5th century bce. In the Museo Nazionale Tarquinise, Italy.SCALA/Art Resource, New York
The Romans generally looked down on dance as effeminate and decadent. The historian Sallust remarked of a citizen’s wife that “she played and danced more gracefully than a respectable woman should.” The early Christian leaders took a similar view and tried to repress pagan dance customs wherever they could. This action has been attributed to the Christian belief that the body, being the unworthy vessel of the soul, should not be indulged by any kind of sensual pleasure or display. The attitude was not completely dominant, though, and some leaders felt that sober and decent dances could play an important role in religious worship. In the 4th century St. Basil asked, “Could there be anything more blessed than to imitate on earth the ring-dance of the angels?” Processional, circle, and line dances were included in many church services and can still be seen in some services in Toledo and Seville, Spain.
At the time of the Renaissance, when the hold of the church on secular life loosened, dance became popular at court (the church had never been successful at repressing dance among the peasants). It became an essential part of every courtier’s education to be able to dance and move gracefully, and this was a time, too, when many performed in amateur court ballets. In England dancing was so popular among all classes that foreign ambassadors spoke of the people as the “dancing English.”
During the 17th century the Puritans were more effective at stamping out the most exuberant and pagan of English dance customs, though among the upper classes it was still considered proper for young children to learn to dance, in order, as the philosopher John Locke put it, to instill “a becoming confidence” in them. In America the hold of the Puritans was even stronger, and many leaders frowned upon any kind of dance, recreational or otherwise, as idle and lascivious. Others saw it as a necessary part of education, providing that it was sober and serious. The most prominent exception to pious disapproval of dance was the Shaker sect, which, while prospering in the United States during the 18th and 19th centuries, developed choreographed dances as part of its worship service. The dances often represented quite complex religious themes. One figure, the wheel within a wheel, which was made up of circles turning in alternate directions around a central chorus of singers, represented the all-embracing nature of the Gospel; the outer ring of dancers represented the ultimate circle of truth, while the central chorus symbolized the harmony and perfection of God that is at the centre of life.
Shakers, near Lebanon, New York; engraving by an unknown artist.Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (digital file no. 3a15948)
Gradually, dance as a means of physical education and entertainment became more popular in the United States. Folk dancing and social dancing were encouraged, and by the 20th century theatre dance, too, began to lose its disreputable taint.
Certainly in the Western world, dance as an art form has never been as popular as it is today, with a wide range of choreographic styles and genres attracting large audiences. As a form of recreation it has also undergone a massive revival, as can be seen in the resurgence of interest in swing and ballroom dancing and in the urban dance styles of contemporary music videos. Moreover, many folk dances, nearly lost to a broader public in the 20th century, have been carefully revived and are widely enjoyed; Irish dancing, Balkan dancing, and English country dancing were but a few of the popular participatory dances evident at the turn of the 21st century. In Asia and Africa many traditional dances have been transferred from the community, where they were dying out, to the theatre. This has brought about a rapid growth in their popularity, both in their places of origin and in the West, where they attract large audiences and are also studied. Components of the dance The dancer Physical requirements
Dancers are not just performing artists; their bodies are also the instruments through which the art is created. The quality of this art, therefore, necessarily depends on the physical qualities and skills that dancers possess. The stronger and more flexible a dancer’s body, the more capable it is of a wide range of movement. Nearly all professional dancers start training at a young age in order to shape and develop their bodies correctly. Strength is built up in the right muscles, for example, and the bone-connecting ligaments on which flexibility of the joints is so dependent are lengthened early before they begin to harden.
As well as strength and mobility, a good dancer must also possess great coordination (the ability to work different parts of the body together), a highly developed kinesthetic awareness (in order to know and control the position and state of the body), control over weight and balance in motion, a developed awareness of space, a strong sense of rhythm, and an appreciation of music. Particularly in dramatic dance, the dancer must be able to project movement clearly and make its expressive qualities intelligible to the audience. Grace, fluidity, and harmony of body are also frequently desired in the dancer, as is physical beauty, but these are subjective qualities that differ from one culture to another and change according to fashion. (Today’s physical ideal of the ballerina—long-limbed and slender—is quite different from the late 19th-century preference for a more rounded figure.) The importance of training