Once a phrase has been constructed, it can be built onto in many different ways. Perhaps the simplest ways are repetition, in which the same phrase is simply repeated, and accumulation, in which the original phrase is repeated with a new phrase added on each time. Separate dance phrases may also be repeated according to a pattern, one of the most basic being the alternation of two phrases, and another being the passing of one or more phrases from one dancer to another in canonic form. Material within a dance phrase can also be developed in a number of ways to create new material. The simplest of these is a straightforward reversal of the sequence of movements in the phrase, but more complex principles of motif and development and of theme and variation are also common. The principle of theme and variation works on the same initial dance phrase being repeated in a number of different ways; for example, with different numbers of people, at different speeds, with different styles of movement (jerky or smooth), or with different dramatic qualities (happy or sad). In motif and development, material from within the phrase is developed in new ways, for example, by embellishing it with other movements (the same jump but with different arm movements), by imitating it on a different scale (the same jump, only bigger or smaller), or by fragmenting it and repeating only small details. Creating the final structure
The third phase of the choreographic process, creating the overall structure of the dance, may be influenced by a variety of considerations, including the purpose of the dance. If the work is to be a narrative piece, the plot will obviously determine the way in which the dance material is to be structured. It may have to follow a strict succession of events, create characters in a particular order, and bring the drama to climax at the proper moments. Similarly, if the dance forms part of a ritual, the material may have to strictly follow sanctioned form and procedure.
The music determines the structure of a dance work, too—by its length, its arrangement of fast and slow movements, and its treatment of theme. Many of George Balanchine’s works follow the structure of the accompanying score very closely; this is reflected in pieces with such titles as Symphony in Three Movements (1972), set to music by Igor Stravinsky, or Concerto barocco (1940), set to music by Johann Sebastian Bach. Many dance forms actually have the same names as musical forms—such as the rondo, which, by repeating an initial movement in alternation with various contrasting movements, follows the same scheme as its musical counterpart.
Balanchine, GeorgeGeorge Balanchine instructing dancer Beryl Grey.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
A dance’s purpose and its musical score are outside influences on its structure. But structure may also be organic; in other words, an entire dance piece may arise from a continuous development of movement ideas, each movement working off of the movement that came before. British choreographer Richard Alston’s Doublework (1978), for example, derived its structure from the exploration of the duet form and the repetition of dance material in different contexts. Other movement ideas that may develop in this way are the use of contrasting sections of movement (a section of fast, energetic dancing followed by a slow, meditative passage), the deployment of different numbers and configurations of dancers (a solo followed by an ensemble followed by a trio, and so on), and the manipulation of different floor patterns or different areas of space (a section of leaping movements contrasted with movement executed very close to the ground).
Movement usually develops organically even when the overall structure of the piece is imposed by a plot or piece of music. In the case of narrative ballets, choreographic ideas may develop into formal motifs while still retaining the ability to represent certain actions or situations in the plot. For example, in Ashton’s La Fille mal gardée (1960) ribbons represent the lovers’ emotions; tied into a love knot, they signify their passion, and transformed into a skipping rope and cat’s cradle, they show their innocence. But at the same time, the ribbons are used in a purely formal way, embellishing certain movements or creating elaborate patterns that can be enjoyed solely for their beauty. In even the most dramatic ballets the representation of emotions and events is heavily stylized, and the ordering of the plot is determined as much by aesthetic as by dramatic logic. Many narrative ballets, like those of Petipa, contain sections of nondramatic dance that develop according to the kind of formal choreographic principles described above.
Bharata natyam, a traditional dance drama of India.Mohan Khokar
In Indian classical dance, male and female kathakali dancers.Foto FeaturesFinally, the structure of a dance reflects the tradition in which it is created and performed. Ballets in the 19th-century classical tradition tend to last an entire evening and are divided into several acts, with the tragic death or happy marriage of the protagonists occurring at the end. Modern dances are often much shorter, and a single program may include up to a half-dozen pieces. In a performance of the Indian dance form bharata natyam, sections of dramatic and abstract dance follow one another in strict succession for a period lasting up to four and a half hours, while in the kathakali dance form of southwestern India, a single performance of alternating dance and music may go on for 16 hours.
Dance notation
Since dance is a performing art, the survival of any dance work depends either on its being preserved through tradition or on its being written down in some form. Where tradition is continuous and uninterrupted, changes in style and interpretation (inevitable when different dancers perform the same material) may be corrected and the dance preserved in its original form. But when a tradition is broken (if, for instance, the cultural traditions of one ethnic group encroach on those of another), then dances may not only change radically but may even disappear. For this reason methods of recording dance are important in the preservation of its history.
A page from Alphabet des mouvements du corps humain (1892), by Vladimir Ivanovich Stepanov, illustrating his dance notation system.
Evidence of dance records dates to the ancient Egyptians, who used hieroglyphs to represent dance movements. In India the earliest book discussing dance, the Natya-sastra (“Treatise on the Dramatic Arts”; variously dated from the 2nd century bc to the 3rd century ad), still survives. This work, which is sacred in Indian culture, codifies dance into a series of rules determining the gestures used to depict different themes and emotions. The bharata natyam, a classical dance form based on this treatise, is a good example of a dance tradition that has survived unbroken for many centuries. It only began to founder during the 19th century, partly because Westerners and Indians alike began to deplore its associations with prostitution, but was saved from disappearing altogether when it was developed into a concert form at the beginning of the 20th century. One reason for the long survival of the bharata natyam was its importance in religious ceremonies of Hinduism; in addition, when Indian dances were rarely being performed and were in danger of being lost or of degenerating beyond recognition, the Natya-sastra provided a record of traditional principles and styles for their later revival. Even today, not all dance instructors are familiar with these principles, and purists still fear that certain dances are in danger of disappearing or being completely distorted. Prominent notation methods