The intuitionists of the 20th century were not philosophically far removed from their 18th-century predecessors, who did not attempt to reason their way to ethical conclusions but claimed rather that ethical knowledge is gained through an immediate apprehension of its truth. According to intuitionists of both eras, a true ethical judgment will be self-evident as long as one is reflecting clearly and calmly and one’s judgment is not distorted by self-interest or by faulty moral upbringing. Sir David Ross (1877–1971), for example, took “the convictions of thoughtful, well-educated people” as “the data of ethics,” observing that, while some such convictions may be illusory, they should be rejected only when they conflict with others that are better able to stand up to “the test of reflection.”
Modern intuitionists differed on the nature of the moral truths that are apprehended in this way. For Moore it was self-evident that certain things are valuable—e.g., the pleasures of friendship and the enjoyment of beauty. Ross, on the other hand, thought that every reflective person knows that he has a duty to do acts of a certain type. These differences will be dealt with in the discussion of normative ethics below. They are, however, significant to metaethical intuitionism because they reveal the lack of agreement, even among intuitionists themselves, about moral judgments that are supposed to be self-evident.
This disagreement was one of the reasons for the eventual rejection of intuitionism, which, when it came, was as complete as its acceptance had been in earlier decades. But there was also a more powerful philosophical motive working against intuitionism. During the 1930s, logical positivism, brought from Vienna by Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) and popularized by A.J. Ayer (1910–89) in his manifesto Language, Truth and Logic (1936), became influential in British philosophy. According to the logical positivists, every true sentence is either a logical truth or a statement of fact. Moral judgments, however, do not fit comfortably into either category. They cannot be logical truths, for these are mere tautologies that convey no more information than what is already contained in the definitions of their terms. Nor can they be statements of fact, because these must, according to the logical positivists, be verifiable (at least in principle); and there is no way of verifying the truths that the intuitionists claimed to apprehend (see verifiability principle). The truths of mathematics, on which intuitionists had continued to rely as the one clear parallel case of a truth known by its self-evidence, were explained now as logical truths. In this view, mathematics conveys no information about the world; it is simply a logical system whose statements are true by definition. Thus, the intuitionists lost the one useful analogy to which they could appeal in support of the existence of a body of self-evident truths known by reason alone. It seemed to follow that moral judgments could not be truths at all.
Sir A.J. Ayer, late 1980s.Geoff A Howard/Alamy
Emotivism
In his above-cited Language, Truth and Logic, Ayer offered an alternative account: moral judgments are neither logical truths nor statements of fact. They are, instead, merely emotional expressions of one’s approval or disapproval of some action or person. As expressions of approval or disapproval, they can be neither true nor false, any more than a tone of reverence (indicating approval) or a tone of abhorrence (indicating disapproval) can be true or false.
This view was more fully developed by the American philosopher Charles Stevenson (1908–79) in Ethics and Language (1945). As the titles of the books of this period suggest, moral philosophers (and philosophers in other fields as well) were now paying more attention to language and to the different ways in which it could be used. Stevenson distinguished the facts a sentence may convey from the emotive impact it is intended to have. Moral judgments are significant, he urged, because of their emotive impact. In saying that something is wrong, one is not merely expressing one’s disapproval of it, as Ayer suggested. One is also encouraging those to whom he speaks to share his attitude. This is why people bother to argue about their moral views, while on matters of taste they may simply agree to differ. It is important to people that others share their attitudes on moral issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and human rights; they do not care whether others prefer to take their tea with lemon.
The emotivists were immediately accused of being subjectivists. In one sense of the term subjectivist, the emotivists could firmly reject this charge. Unlike other subjectivists in the past, they did not hold that those who say, for example, “Stealing is wrong,” are making a statement of fact about their own feelings or attitudes toward stealing. This view—more properly known as subjective naturalism because it makes the truth of moral judgments depend on a natural, albeit subjective, fact about the world—could be refuted by Moore’s open-question argument. It makes sense to ask: “I know that I have a feeling of approval toward this, but is it good?” It was the emotivists’ view, however, that moral judgments make no statements of fact at all. The emotivists could not be defeated by the open-question argument because they agreed that no definition of “good” in terms of facts, natural or unnatural, could capture the emotive element of its meaning. Yet, this reply fails to confront the real misgivings behind the charge of subjectivism: the concern that there are no possible standards of right and wrong other than one’s own subjective feelings. In this sense, the emotivists were indeed subjectivists. Existentialism
At about this time a different form of subjectivism was gaining currency on the Continent and to some extent in the United States. Existentialism was as much a literary as a philosophical movement. Its leading figure, the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80), propounded his ideas in novels and plays as well as in his major philosophical treatise, Being and Nothingness (1943). Sartre held that there is no God, and therefore human beings were not designed for any particular purpose. The existentialists expressed this by stating that “existence precedes essence.” Thus, they made clear their rejection of the Aristotelian notion that one can know what the good for human beings is once one understands the ultimate end toward which human beings tend. Because humans do not have an ultimate end, they are free to choose how they will live. To say of anyone that he is compelled by his situation, his nature, or his role in life to act in a certain way is to exhibit “bad faith.” This seems to be the only term of disapproval the existentialists were prepared to use. As long as a person chooses “authentically,” there are no moral standards by which his conduct can be criticized.
Jean-Paul Sartre, photograph by Gisele Freund, 1968.Gisele Freund
This, at least, was the view most widely held by the existentialists. In one work, a pamphlet entitled Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946), Sartre backed away from so radical a subjectivism by suggesting a version of Kant’s idea that moral judgments be applied universally. He does not reconcile this view with conflicting statements elsewhere in his writings, and it is doubtful whether it represents his final ethical position. It may reflect, however, revelations during the postwar years of atrocities committed by the Nazis at Auschwitz and other death camps. One leading German prewar existentialist, Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), had actually become a Nazi. Was his “authentic choice” to join the Nazi Party just as good as Sartre’s own choice to join the French Resistance? Is there really no firm ground from which to compare the two? This seemed to be the outcome of the pure existentialist position, just as it was an implication of the ethical emotivism that was dominant among English-speaking philosophers. It is scarcely surprising that many philosophers should search for a metaethical view that did not commit them to this conclusion. The Kantian avenues pursued by Sartre in Existentialism Is a Humanism were also explored in later British moral philosophy, though in a much more sophisticated form. Universal prescriptivism