By the 20th century the bed belonged exclusively to one’s private life and, compared with those of the past, was simple. Four-posters are still “modern,” possibly because they appeal to something primitive, namely the sensation of sleeping in a tent. In general, development has been concentrated on improving the quality of bedclothes and increasing the amount of comfort by attention to box springs, mattresses, eiderdowns, and pillows. The actual woodwork of the bed is usually restricted to joined veneered sections of laminated board, canework sometimes being used for the headboards and footboards. Storage furniture Chest
The principal constructional features of early medieval chests lasted until the Renaissance. The so-called Oseberg ship, dating from the Viking era (9th century) and discovered in 1904 in Vestfold, Norway, included among the furniture on board a chest made of oak planks secured by iron bands. The planks are not mortised together, and the end sections stand vertical, thereby forming feet, wider at the bottom than above. The lid is formed by a single curved oak plank that has been roughhewn into shape. The bottom of the chest rests in a groove cut into the end sections. The wooden construction, a primitive form of carpentry, is held together by broad iron bands, the nails are tin-plated. In this Oseberg chest, the iron mounts essential to the construction constitute the decorative element as well. Medieval chests are developments of the same principle: a piece of carpentry with decorative iron mounts, but the principle found freer application in medieval church doors than in the chests of the period.
The chest often appears in portable form as a traveller’s trunk that can also serve as a stationary piece of furniture. A number of painted, parchment-covered Florentine chests dating from the middle of the 15th century have been preserved. These were used as trunks by young girls on their way to enter a convent and later stood in their cells as pieces of storage furniture for clothes and other personal belongings. A “nun’s chest” of this type is in principle quite different from the sumptuous cassoni of the Italian Renaissance that were adorned with gilded stucco work and painted panels. Cassoni were stationary pieces of palace furniture. Specifically designed for travelling, however, were Javanese camphorwood chests that made the long voyage round the Cape of Good Hope full of stuffs and spices and eventually came to rest in an English manor house or in a gabled Dutch mansion in Amsterdam. The plank construction with metal mounts is of primitive craftsmanship. The large, smooth expanses of reddish-brown wood, with their elaborate openwork brass mounts and big, chased bolt heads to take the brunt of rough handling, have a kind of sophisticated crudeness about them. On later camphorwood chests the brass mounts are sunk flush with the surface of the wood, just as on portable writing desks and toilet cases of the French Empire period. Veneered wood was not suitable for chests intended for travel purposes, but it was possible to cover the entire chest with leather fastened with metal nails, often forming a pattern. Several beautiful, leather-covered chests made in Italy and Spain in the 17th century are known, and the form persisted in the large wardrobe trunks of succeeding centuries.
When furniture-making techniques demanding the skill of the cabinetmaker evolved during the Renaissance, frames, panels, and carving appeared on chests. In southern Europe, walnut lent itself admirably to carving; in northern Europe, oak. While the Italians were inspired by the molding and decorative plant ornamentation of the stone sarcophagi of ancient Rome, in northern Europe late medieval wood carving traditions were continued. As a rule the carved woodwork was picked out (decorated) with paint and gilded. In the 18th century, the chest was largely supplanted for storage purposes by the chest of drawers and the commode (low chest of drawers), but it never entirely disappeared. Particularly in the big country houses of England and America, chests of mahogany or walnut were used for a long time, often having drawers and finely fashioned brass mounts that revealed Chinese influence. Cupboard
Strictly speaking, the cupboard is a derivative form of the chest. Early Renaissance cupboards resembled two chests placed one on top of the other, but they were opened from the front by means of doors. The design and construction of the cupboard’s pronounced front have always provided ample scope for artistic composition, and it is no mere coincidence that the cupboard more than any other furniture form should have closer links with architecture. It literally invited an architectonic composition: socle, columns, cornice. This development can be traced from the close of the Middle Ages in a large number of southern German and Tirolean cupboards bearing late Gothic perpendicular tracery and smooth surfaces veneered with ashwood. Very large cupboards took on their most striking form, however, during the Renaissance, in 17th century in the Netherlands and northern Germany. In molding and composition, they have much in common with architectural facades, but their picturesque and textural effects are the result of refined craftsmanship. The use of veneer was common on Continental cupboards. A carcass of wood was given a veneer of fine walnut; socle, frames, columns, and cornice were decorated with veneered black ebony. The doors were furnished with strong locks, and the keyhole was concealed behind a sliding middle column. The cornice was often decoratively crowned with a set of Dutch faience or Chinese porcelain vases. These heavy cupboards were made to appear lighter by placing them on big, turned ball feet. In marked contrast to the European Baroque cupboards, Chinese cupboards of the same period were simple, smooth-surfaced, and boxlike. Their construction was based on a simple system of uprights and frames, and as a rule they were made in pairs. If painted, a large decorative painting was spread across the entire surface, including the doors. Inside, Chinese cupboards are finished with great care and painted in a different colour from the outside. The mounts are of various white and yellow metal alloys, smooth, either round or square; and the locks are secured with prismatically designed padlocks. Japanese and Siamese cupboards, apart from certain independent features, follow the old Chinese traditions.
The clothes cupboard of the 19th and 20th centuries, an indispensable piece of bedroom furniture wherever there were no built-in cupboards, was based on traditional features of the 18th-century English clothespress but equipped to meet the changing fashions of modern times. Bookcases
Bookcases or bookshelves are a less interesting form of storage furniture from the viewpoint of furniture history. Perhaps the most significant innovation appeared in 18th-century England in the bookcase with adjustable shelves and a closed-off lower section for folio files. The shelves were protected by glass doors consisting of an ingenious trelliswork of carved wood. Bookcases and shelves become interesting only when they form part of specially designed library interiors and when several shelves full of books create an intimate, compact whole. Mixed forms
Apart from the kinds of storage furniture already mentioned, there are numerous combination forms. An ordinary table can be used as a writing desk, and the only differences between the typical French Rococo writing desk of the 18th century and other tables are the drawers in the underframe and the leather-covered top. The novelty of Louis XV’s writing desk consists of a rolltop device for closing the writing flap. In England a special type of writing desk was developed which, besides drawers in the underframe, has a side cupboard fitted with additional drawers and, occasionally, sliding trays. Some have a false drawer front that can be pulled out to form a writing surface. When a writing desk has a cupboard built on the top of it and is placed on a chest of drawers, the result is a cabinet or secretary. There are also bookcases with lower sections equipped with a flap, either hinged or sliding, for writing. All of these combinations, frequently of ingenious design, were made anonymously in England during the 18th century, apparently having arisen from a desire on the part of the well-to-do middle classes to develop a sophisticated and differentiated pattern of life.