State Council: Gosudarstvennyi sovet: the central Russian governmental institution, founded in 1810, which was formally responsible for approving laws before they were sent to the tsar for ratification. After 1905 and the foundation of the State Duma, it was regarded as the “upper house.”
State Duma: Gosudarstvennaia duma: the consultative assembly, first elected in 1906, following Nicholas II’s October Manifesto.
stavka: The general headquarters of the Russian Army. During the First World War, this was initially located at Baranovichi and then (from August 1915) at Mogilev.
steppe: The treeless, grassy plain covering much of southern and southeastern Russia.
taiga: The chiefly coniferous forest stretching across northern Russia, between the steppe and the tundra.
trudovik: A member of the Labor group (the name adopted by Populist deputies in the State Duma).
uezd: A subdivision of a province (guberniia); a district.
uriadnik: A Cossack noncommissioned officer.
versta: A Russian unit of distance (pl. versty): 1 versta = 1,067 meters or 3,500 feet.
village commune: The fundamental institution of peasant self-government throughout much of European Russia. Russian peasants tended to call it the mir (literally “the peace” or “the world,” or even “the universe”); from the 1830s intellectuals often called it the obshchina; after 1861 it was officially constituted as the sel′skoe obshestvo (“village community”).
voisko: See Host (pl. voiska).
volost′: A county; the unit of local administration, established by the Emancipation Edict of 1861, with its own peasant assembly, courts, officials, etc.; it united between 300 and 2,000 people, often from a number of settlements and village communes.
Volunteers: Members of the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army, established by General M. V. Alekseev at Novocherkassk in November 1917 and from January 1918 incorporated into the Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR).
War Communism: The term used (retrospectively) by V. I. Lenin to denote the series of economic measures employed (or inherited) by the Bolsheviks during the civil wars, including wholesale nationalization of industry, forced requisitioning of food, devaluation of the currency, etc.
zemstvo: Officially, zemskoe uchrezhdenie: an elected assembly (pl. zemstva), at uezd and guberniia levels, of representatives of all classes, established by the reform of 1 January 1864.
Bibliography
Conceptual and Comparative Works
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Collier, Paul, and Nicholas Sambanis, eds. Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2005.
David, Steven R. “Internal Wars: Causes and Cures.” World Politics 49 (1997): 552–76.
Derriennic, Jean-Pierre. Les Guerres Civiles. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2001.
Forman, Eric M. “Civil War as a Source of International Violence.” Journal of Politics 34, no. 4 (1972): 1111–34.
Kalyvas, Stathis. “Civil Wars.” In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, edited by Carles Boix and Susan Stokes, 416–34. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
———. “Warfare in Civil Wars.” In Rethinking the Nature of War, edited by Isabelle Duyvesteyn and Jan Angstrom, 88–108. London: Frank Cass, 2005.
Oberschall, Anthony, and Michael Seidman. “Food Coercion in Revolution and Civil War: Who Wins and How They Do It.” Comparitive Studies in Society and History 47, no. 2 (2005): 372–402.
Sambamis, Nicholas. “What Is Civil War? Conceptual and Empirical Complexities of an Operational Definition.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 48, no. 6 (2004): 816–58.
Waldmann, Peter. “Civil War: Approaching a Tenuous Term.” In Civil Wars: Consequences and Possibilities for Regulation, edited by Heinrich Krumwiede and Peter Waldmann, 15–36. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2000.
———. “The Dynamics and Consequences of Civil Wars.” In Civil Wars: Consequences and Possibilities for Regulation, edited by Heinrich Krumwiede and Peter Waldmann, 105–29. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2000.
Zawodny, Janusz. “Internal Warfare.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 7–8:499–502. London: Macmillan, 1972.
Reference Works
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