A generation later, the debate over quantification fizzled out, leaving some permanent mark on political history. Few would now deny the value of some quantitative studies or the desirability of precision in historical language. The habit of collaboration with other historians and membership in research teams, virtually unknown earlier, is now well established. A number of intuitively obvious interpretations have been shown to be exaggerated or plainly wrong.
On the other hand, it is clear that quantification in political history was oversold. Its idea of scientific procedures was startlingly old-fashioned, and many of the studies based solely on quantification failed to produce significant results. Sometimes things already believed were confirmed—not a useless exercise but not a high priority either. More-interesting correlations often failed the significance test or showed inexplicable relationships. Finally, attention was diverted to bodies of data that could be quantified. The most judicious of the new political historians warned against the exclusive reliance on quantification and recognized that archival research would remain indispensable, especially in the traditional fields of constitutional, administrative, and legal history. History of science
The history of all the branches of learning has always been a part of intellectual history, but the history of science has had a peculiarly tense relationship with it, and with history more generally. Although much history of science has been written by practicing scientists, it is almost never formally taught in science departments. It is now mostly treated as autonomous, but in some cases historians of science have been included in history faculties. Even though their relationships with other historians may be distant (though cordial), the study of the history of science is in many ways analogous to the study of other aspects of the past. The history of science has also produced, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), by Thomas Kuhn (1922–96), one of the most influential books by any American historian in the postwar period. Almost everybody who uses the word paradigm in any of the many senses in which Kuhn used it is indebted to that book.
The tension between the history of ideas and intellectual history reappears in the history of science in a tension between “internalist” and “externalist” approaches to the subject. To the internalist the critical questions are: What problem was the scientist attempting to solve, and how did he solve it? To answer these questions, the historian obviously needs to know in intimate detail the state of scientific thought during the time about which he is writing. But he also needs to be familiar with the nuts and bolts of scientific work—the apparatus, the experimental animals, if any, and the like. The problems for investigation are likely to be generated within the compass of what Kuhn calls “normal science,” which has well-established procedures for verifying results. (Anomalous results can be dismissed as experimental error, though when they accumulate they can lead to an overturning of an established paradigm of normal science.)
The great merit of the internalist approach is also the source of its greatest difficulty. It deals with how science is actually done, which means that not many historians have the necessary knowledge of science to write it. This difficulty becomes particularly acute when modern science (roughly, science since the start of the 19th century) is the subject. The literature in the history of science is disproportionately focused on the so-called scientific revolution of the 17th century. One reason for this is that the scientific revolution was a heroic period, but another is that much less knowledge of modern science is required to understand Galileo, Johannes Kepler, or Isaac Newton than is required to understand Albert Einstein or Werner Heisenberg. Ignorance of scientific practice can be further concealed by concentrating on what scientists say about their method in the prefaces to their works. It may seem strange to make a distinction between scientific method and practice, but it is not. “Method” is not simply distilled practice, and sometimes it is a poor description of what scientists actually do. It seems clear that improvements in scientific method had relatively little to do with the successes of the scientific revolution. Furthermore, some scientific works (those of Francis Bacon, for example) are barely disguised appeals for funding, and the prefaces of others are not free of self-advertisement.
In part because a history of modern science would require knowledge of modern science, some historians who attempt the internalist mode have focused their investigations on what counted as science in the past. An influential early work in this vein, Lynn Thorndike’s A History of Magic and Experimental Science (1923–58), discussed two seemingly distinct approaches that share the belief that human practice can affect the natural world. Distinguishing between the two approaches requires criteria—effectiveness and rationality—that are essentially modern. Sorting out what was scientific work can easily lead to a history that begins with the concepts of modern science and then looks backward to see how those categories were anticipated by earlier scientists. The result is a story of how scientists finally “got it right” after the bungling and delusions of their predecessors were corrected—though such stories inevitably tend to mangle the integrity of past scientific traditions. Another approach is to give a “rational reconstruction” of the history of science—that is, to show how the underlying logic of scientific discovery unfolded, without bothering with the irksome details of how things actually happened.
The externalist approach aims at a retrospective sociology or anthropology of scientific discovery. One of its earliest advocates was Bruno Latour, who with his colleague Steve Woolgar did fieldwork in a biological laboratory, where they discovered that scientific practice was not a pure expression of scientific method and that scientists did not disdain the use of rhetoric in reporting their results. The most aggressive partisans of this approach advocated a “strong program” for contextualizing science. Important work in contextualization has been done by Marxist historians; their masterpiece is Science and Civilization in China (1954), a multivolume history of Chinese science by the English historian and scientist Joseph Needham. The traditional point of intersection between science and society is technology, and Marxist historians made valiant efforts to argue that the practical needs of ballistics influenced Newton’s celestial mechanics. However, this approach is of limited usefulness for any time before the late 19th century, when chemistry revolutionized dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, and photography; before then, science and technology had proceeded on essentially unrelated paths, accompanied by condescension from scientists and resentment from artisans. In modern times, the relationship has been much closer, and even advocates or practitioners of “pure” science often entertain the hope that some useful device will emerge.
Externalists can get by with much less scientific knowledge than internalists, which accounts for some of the appeal of the former school. Externalists have undoubtedly made clearer the process whereby people become accepted as scientists; this is vital, because there is no way to know what science is other than by knowing what the community of scientists say it is. Externalists have also shown why some topics become interesting to scientists while others are ignored. Yet natural science is probably more autonomous than most modes of knowledge production, and there are limits to how much illumination a historian can bring to the history of science without knowing a lot of science himself. Social and cultural history
Many historians in the past echoed the calls of Jules Michelet or Thomas Carlyle to rescue ordinary people from the silence and condescension of history, but they generally lacked the means to go beyond anecdote, sentimentalism, and left-wing politics. Only since World War II (and here the journal Annales: histoire, sciences sociales was an extraordinary engine for progress) have historians developed the techniques to begin carrying out the program now called “history from the bottom up.”