Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
History of Arabia
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Introduction
Pre-Islamic Arabia, to the 7th century ce
Arabia since the 7th century
History of Arabia, history of the region from prehistoric times to the present.
Sometime after the rise of Islam in the first quarter of the 7th century ce and the emergence of the Arabian Muslims as the founders of one of the great empires of history, the name ʿArab came to be used by these Muslims themselves and by the nations with whom they came in contact to indicate all people of Arabian origin. The very name Arabia, or its Arabic name Jazīrat al-ʿArab, has come to be used for the whole peninsula. But the definition of the area, even in Islamic sources, is not agreed upon unanimously. In its narrowest application it indicates much less than the whole peninsula, while in ancient Greek and Latin sources—and often in subsequent sources—the term Arabia includes the Syrian and Jordanian deserts and the Iraqi desert west of the lower Euphrates. Similarly, “Arabs” connoted, at least in pre-Islamic times, mainly the tribal populations of central and northern Arabia.
Arabia has been inhabited by innumerable tribal units, forever splitting or confederating; its history is a kaleidoscope of shifting allegiances, although certain broad patterns may be distinguished. A native system has evolved of moving from tribal anarchy to centralized government and relapsing again into anarchy. The tribes have dominated the peninsula, even in intermittent periods when the personal prestige of a leader has led briefly to some measure of tribal cohesion.
Arabian culture is a branch of Semitic civilization; because of this and because of the influences of sister Semitic cultures to which it has been subjected at certain epochs, it is sometimes difficult to determine what is specifically Arabian. Because a great trade route passed along its flanks, Arabia had contact along its borders with Egyptian, Greco-Roman, and Indo-Persian civilizations. The Turkish overlords of the Arabic-speaking countries affected Arabia relatively little, however, and the dominant culture of western Europe arrived late in the colonial era.
Arabia was the cradle of Islam, and through this faith it influenced every Muslim people. Islam, essentially Arabian in nature, whatever superficial external influences may have affected it, is Arabia’s outstanding contribution to world civilization. Mahmud Ali Ghul Alfred Felix L. Beeston Pre-Islamic Arabia, to the 7th century ce Prehistory and archaeology
At one time Arabia as a whole may have had greater rainfall and richer vegetation than it does today, as shown by the large dried-up watercourses intersecting the peninsula. But climatic conditions seem to have changed little in the past five millennia; human life—settled or nomad—has been a struggle to cope with the harsh realities of this vast subcontinent.
Stone Age settlements of fishermen and shellfish eaters going back to the 3rd millennium bce have been found on the northeast coast and in the islands of Faylakah and Bahrain. Surface scatters of flint implements are seen in many places in the peninsula, as are undatable but probably ancient rock drawings for which affinities have been thought to exist with rock drawings in the Sahara.
Southern Arabia (comprising Yemen and Oman) lies within the climatic zone of the Indian Ocean monsoons, which yield enough rainfall to make it potentially the most fertile part of Arabia. In Yemen, sophisticated irrigation techniques go very far back indeed; soundings in the silt deposits around the great dam of Maʾrib attest intensive agricultural exploitation there from at least 2000 bce.
The racial affinities of the Arabian populations are not traceable. A theory by which Arabia was considered the birthplace and homeland of the nations of Semitic culture is not now regarded as tenable. Arabian peoples have been held to be related to a variety of groups, with homelands in almost all directions outside Arabia: the view that sought to visualize all Arabians as a single race has never been valid. The oldest evidence indicates the presence of Africans in the Red Sea coastal plain, Iranians in the southeastern tip of the peninsula, and peoples of Aramaean stock in the north. The racial affinities of the ancient Yemeni peoples remain unsolved; the marked similarity of their culture to the Semitic cultures that arose in the Fertile Crescent to the north of the peninsula can be attributed to cultural spread rather than to immigration.
Apart from pursuing the few prehistoric evidences, archaeological research centres mainly on sites of the historic period, which is also attested by written records beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium bce. Some sites in the northern Hejaz, such as Dedān (now Al-ʿUlā), Al-Ḥijr (now Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ, barely six miles north of Dedān), and Taymāʾ to the northeast of the other two, have long been known but not fully explored. In south-central Arabia, near Al-Sulayyil, a town site at Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil (now Qaryat al-Fāw) has yielded rich results from excavation. In northeastern Arabia, inland from modern Al-Qaṭīf, a Danish expedition has revealed a hitherto unsuspected pre-Islamic walled town of large dimension.
The written records consist of a vast number of inscriptions (especially thickly clustered in Yemen) on stone slabs, rock faces, bronze tablets, and other objects, together with graffiti on rock, scattered widely through the peninsula. In all this material, only a handful of inscriptions can properly be called Arabic. In the north and centre the dominant linguistic form is Old North Arabian (subclassified into Liḥyānic, Thamūdic, and Ṣafaitic); despite close connections between this group and Arabic, the latter cannot be regarded as lineally descended from it. The Yemenite inscriptions are in Old South Arabian (subclassified into Minaean, Sabaean, Qatabānian, and Hadhramautic), which is a wholly independent group within the Semitic family of languages. (The Old North Arabian and Old South Arabian inscriptions and graffiti are in scripts of a South Semitic type, of which Ethiopic is the only present-day survivor; modern Arabic script is of a North Semitic type.) Unscientific pillaging, however, has deprived many of the Yemeni inscriptions of a good deal of their value by removing them from their archaeological context. There are also inscriptions in extraneous languages: Aramaic, Greek, and Latin.
In the ancient Yemeni culture area are many great structures and monuments, such as dams, temples, and palaces, as well as a wealth of plastic art of extremely high quality. The motifs, such as the ubiquitous bull heads and ibex figures, are partly characteristic of Yemen, but from the 3rd century bce onward the style is markedly Hellenistic.
Fresh data, both archaeological and epigraphic, appear every year and sometimes entail radical reappraisal of earlier hypotheses. Any attempt at a synthetic picture is therefore strictly provisional. Sabaean and Minaean kingdoms
The Greek writer Eratosthenes (3rd century bce) described “Eudaimon Arabia” (i.e., Yemen) as inhabited by four major peoples (ethne), and it is on the basis of his nomenclature for these groups that modern scholars are accustomed to speak of Minaeans, Sabaeans, Qatabānians, and Hadramites. The fourfold categorization does indeed correspond to the linguistic data, but the political and historical facts are a good deal more complex. The capitals of the four peoples were not located in the centres of their respective territories but instead lay close together on the western, southern, and eastern fringes of a tract of sand desert known to medieval Arab geographers as the Ṣayhad (modern Ramlat al-Sabʿatayn). This off-centre placing has been thought to originate from proximity to the trade route by which frankincense was conveyed from Hadhramaut first westward, then north to Najrān, then up the west coast of Arabia to Gaza, and across the peninsula to the east coast. The territories attached to the latter three of the capitals spread out fanwise into the mountainous regions. Sabaeans