Inscriptions from the Hadramite kingdom are scantier in number than from the Sabaean, Minaean, or Qatabānian. Yet the Hadramite was probably the wealthiest of them all. Hadhramaut and the Saʾkal area to the east (modern Dhofar province of the sultanate of Oman) are the only places in Arabia where climatic conditions make production of frankincense possible, and Pliny wrote that the whole of the produce was collected at the Hadramite capital, Shabwah, on the eastern fringe of the Ṣayhad sands, and taxed there before being handed over to the caravans that carried it to the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. In addition, Hadhramaut was an entrepôt for Indian goods brought by sea and then forwarded by land. The caravan trade may have suffered to some degree from competition by Red Sea shipping, which, from the 1st century ce, began to sail through the Bab El-Mandeb Strait into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, as late as about 230 ce a king of Hadhramaut received missions from India and Palmyra (Tadmor), at the opposite ends of the long-standing trade route along which Hadhramaut occupied a central position. At Shabwah, French archaeological work begun in 1975 adjacent to the visible temple ruin has revealed a walled town of larger extent than any other ancient Yemeni site. The palace, on the opposite side of the town from the temple, was, according to the archaeological evidence, a truly magnificent building. The main port of Hadhramaut was at Cane on the bay of Biʾr ʿAlī; and the Hadramites had a settlement at Samhar-m (now Khawr Rawrī) on Qamar Bay in the Saʾkal region, founded about the turn of the Christian era. Ḥimyarites
Ḥimyar is the Arabic form of the name of a people who appear in the inscriptions as Ḥmyr and in Greek sources as Homeritai. They occupied the extreme southwest of the peninsula and had their capital at Ẓafār, a site some nine miles southeast of present-day Yarīm, on the motor road from Aden and Taʿizz to Sanaa. The first appearance of Ḥimyar in history is in Pliny’s Naturalis Historia (latter half of the 1st century ce); a short time later the Greek document known to scholars as the Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions an individual who was “king of two nations, the Homerites and the Sabaeans.” But this dual kingship was not definitive: throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries there were phases of warfare between native Sabaean rulers and Ḥimyarite ones. Royal titulature in this period is confusing: alongside “kings of Sabaʾ” are found “kings of Sabaʾ and the Raydān,” but the implications of the latter are still debated. A thesis advanced by the Arab scholar M.A. Bafaqih is that the former are native Sabaeans and the latter heads of a dual kingship over both peoples. Others have held that native Sabaean rulers sometimes claimed the longer title even when there was little reality behind it. Moreover, the Ḥimyarites, until the 6th century ce, used the Sabaean language for their epigraphic records, and there are no inscriptions or other monuments at Ẓafār or elsewhere in the true Ḥimyarite area that can be confidently dated before 300 ce.
In the last decades of the 3rd century ce, a Ḥimyarite ruler named Shammar Yuharʿish ended the independent existence of both Sabaʾ and Hadhramaut, and, inasmuch as Qatabān had already disappeared from the political map, the whole of Yemen was united under his rule. Thereafter, the royal style was “King of Sabaʾ and the Raydān and Hadhramaut and Yamnat.” Arabic writers call him and his successors the Tabābiʿah (singular Tubbaʿ), and, because in the centuries immediately preceding Islam Yemen was dominated by the Ḥimyarites, the Arabic writers (followed by many 19th-century Europeans) apply the term Ḥimyaritic to all pre-Islamic monuments of Yemen, irrespective of date or location. The Tubbaʿ kings
A major break with the past was made in the 4th century ce, when the polytheistic religion of the earlier cultures was replaced by a monotheistic cult of “The Merciful (Raḥmān), Lord of heaven and earth.” There was also an increasing interest, both friendly and hostile, in central Arabia. Already in the 2nd and 3rd centuries ce Sabaean, Ḥimyaro-Sabaean, and Ḥimyarite rulers had employed central Arabian Bedouin mercenaries; and the first Tubbaʿ king, Shammar Yuharʿish, sent a diplomatic mission to the Sāsānian court at Ctesiphon.
The kingdom of Aksum in Eritrea is mentioned in Sabaean texts of the 2nd century ce as having some not very definable link with Habashite (“Abyssinian”) people settled in the Arabian coastal areas, who were throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries a thorn in the flesh of both Sabaean and Ḥimyaro-Sabaean rulers, even at one point occupying Ẓafār. Tension between Aksum and Ḥimyar reached a climax in 517 or 522 ce, with a Jewish Ḥimyarite king (traditionally said to have been a convert to Judaism) named Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar. It seems that the conflict escalated from what had been (in one account) a trade dispute. Yūsuf massacred the entire Ethiopian population of the port of Mocha and of Ẓafār and, about a year later, the Christians of Najrān. Aksum retaliated with invasion, leading to the defeat and death of Yūsuf (who is known in Arabic tradition mostly by the nickname Dhū Nuwās) and the establishment of a puppet kingdom in Yemen subject to Aksum. Somewhat later the Ḥimyarite king Abraha regained some measure of independence, and he was responsible for major repairs to the Maʾrib Dam in the 540s. His reign was followed by a fairly brief Persian occupation of Yemen. Early in the 7th century Yemen accepted Islam peacefully, and its antique native culture merged into the Islamic culture. Central and northern Arabia
The oasis of Taymāʾ in the northern Hejaz emerged briefly into the limelight when the Neo-Babylonian king Nabu-naʾid (Nabonidus, reigned c. 556–539 bce) took up his residence there for 10 years and extended his power as far as Yathrib. A few important monuments of this time are known. Dedān and Al-Ḥijr
It is possible that the Minaean settlement at Dedān (see above) coexisted with a native Dedānite town. But only one “king of Dedān” is recorded. This kingdom seems to have been replaced quite soon by a kingdom of Liḥyān (Greek: Lechienoi). The entire area, however, was not long in coming under the rule of the Nabataean kings of a dynasty (centred at Petra) covering the 1st century bce and the 1st ce; and the ancient town of Dedān was eclipsed by a new Nabataean foundation just to the north at Al-Ḥijr (Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ). At the beginning of the 2nd century ce the Nabataean kingdom was annexed by Rome, the official decree of annexation being dated 111. The Nabataeans, like the Minaeans before them, had been involved in the caravan trade, and it would appear probable that for at least a time after the annexation they continued this role, under Roman aegis. Subsequent history of the area remains obscure.
The Khasneh (“Treasury”), Nabataean tomb at Petra, Jordan.© Shawn McCullars
Kindah
Kindah was a Bedouin tribal kingdom quite unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Its area of influence was south-central Arabia, from the Yemeni border nearly up to Mecca. The discovery of the tomb of a king of Kindah (datable to perhaps the 3rd century ce) at Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, on the trade route linking Najrān with the east coast, suggests that this site was in all likelihood the royal headquarters. Sabaean texts of the 2nd and 3rd centuries contain a number of references to Kindah, attesting relations sometimes hostile (as when an assault was made on Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil) and other times friendly (as evidenced by the supply of Kindite troops for the Yemenite rulers). This pattern of relationship seems to have continued down to the early 6th century, when the Kindite hegemony collapsed, partly as a consequence of tribal wars and partly perhaps as a result of the emergent power of the Meccan Quraysh at that time. The last Kindah king, the famous poet Imruʾ al-Qays, became a fugitive. Al-Ḥīrah