In the Netherlands the mystical impulse awakened chiefly under the stimulus of another great teacher, Gerhard Groote. Not a monk nor even a priest, Groote gave the mystical movement a different direction by teaching that true spiritual communion must be combined with moral action, for this was the whole lesson of the Gospel. At his death a group of followers formed the Brethren of the Common Life. These were laymen and laywomen, married and single, earning their livings in the world but united by a simple rule that required them to pool their earnings and devote themselves to spiritual works, teaching, and charity. Houses of Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life spread through the cities and towns of the Netherlands and Germany, and a monastic counterpart was founded in the order of Canons Regular of St. Augustine, known as the Windesheim Congregation, which in the second half of the 15th century numbered some 82 priories. The Brethren were particularly successful as schoolmasters, combining some of the new linguistic methods of the humanists with a strong emphasis upon Bible study. Among the generations of children who absorbed the new piety (devotio moderna) in their schools were Erasmus and, briefly, Luther. In the ambience of the devotio moderna appeared one of the most influential books of piety ever written, The Imitation of Christ, attributed to Thomas à Kempis, a monk of the Windesheim Congregation.
One man whose life was changed by The Imitation was the 16th-century Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. After reading it, Loyola founded the Society of Jesus and wrote his own book of methodical prayer, Spiritual Exercises. Thus, Spanish piety was in some ways connected with that of the Netherlands, but the extraordinary outburst of mystical and contemplative activity in 16th-century Spain was mainly an expression of the intense religious exaltation of the Spanish people themselves as they confronted the tasks of reform, Counter-Reformation, and world leadership. Spanish mysticism belies the usual picture of the mystic as a withdrawn contemplative, with his or her head in the clouds. Not only Loyola but also St. Teresa of Avila and her disciple, St. John of the Cross, were tough, activist Reformers who regarded their mystical experiences as means of fortifying themselves for their practical tasks. They were also prolific writers who could communicate their experiences and analyze them for the benefit of others. This is especially true of St. John of the Cross, whose mystical poetry is one of the glories of Spanish literature.
Loyola, St. Ignatius ofSt. Ignatius of Loyola.Photos.com/Jupiterimages
The growth of vernacular literature
Le Miroir de humaine saluation (“The Mirror of Human Salvation”) by Ludolf of Saxony (supposed author), c. 1455; the French manuscript is an example of western European Christian scripture written in the vernacular.The Newberry Library, Louis H. Silver Collection, 1964 (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
Geoffrey Chaucer, from the 15th-century Ellesmere manuscript of The Canterbury Tales. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
Portrait of François Villon, woodcut from the first edition of Villon's works published by Pierre Levet, 1489; the ballade “Faulce beaulte” (“Fausse beaute”), printed below the portrait, is an acrostic, i.e., the initial letter of each line read top to bottom forms the poet's first name, Francoys.Courtesy of the Bibliothèque Nationale, ParisIn literature, medieval forms continued to dominate the artistic imagination throughout the 15th century. Besides the vast devotional literature of the period—the ars moriendi, or books on the art of dying well, the saints’ lives, and manuals of methodical prayer and spiritual consolation—the most popular reading of noble and burgher alike was a 13th-century love allegory, the Roman de la rose. Despite a promising start in the late Middle Ages, literary creativity suffered from the domination of Latin as the language of “serious” expression, with the result that, if the vernacular attracted writers, they tended to overload it with Latinisms and artificially applied rhetorical forms. This was the case with the so-called grands rhetoriqueurs of Burgundy and France. One exception is 14th-century England, where a national literature made a brilliant showing in the works of William Langland, John Gower, and, above all, Geoffrey Chaucer. The troubled 15th century, however, produced only feeble imitations. Another exception is the vigorous tradition of chronicle writing in French, distinguished by such eminently readable works as the chronicle of Jean Froissart and the memoirs of Philippe de Commynes. In France, too, about the middle of the 15th century there lived the vagabond François Villon, a great poet about whom next to nothing is known. In Germany Das Narrenschiff (The Ship of Fools) by Sebastian Brant was a lone masterpiece.
The 16th century saw a true renaissance of national literatures. In Protestant countries the Reformation had an enormous impact upon the quantity and quality of literary output. If Luther’s rebellion destroyed the chances of unifying the nation politically—because religious division exacerbated political division and made Lutherans intolerant of the Catholic Habsburgs—his translation of the Bible into German created a national language. Biblical translations, vernacular liturgies, hymns, and sacred drama had analogous effects elsewhere. For Roman Catholics, especially in Spain, the Reformation was a time of deep religious emotion expressed in art and literature. On all sides of the religious controversy, chroniclers and historians writing in the vernacular were recording their versions for posterity.
Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza in front of a stone sculpture of Miguel de Cervantes, Madrid, Spain.© Hemera/Thinkstock
Shakespeare, WilliamWilliam Shakespeare.© Archive PhotosWhile the Reformation was providing a subject matter, the Italian Renaissance was providing literary methods and models. The Petrarchan sonnet inspired French, English, and Spanish poets, while the Renaissance neoclassical drama finally began to end the reign of the medieval mystery play. Ultimately, of course, the works of real genius were the result of a crossing of native traditions and new forms. The Frenchman François Rabelais assimilated the themes of his day—and mocked them all—in his story of the giants Gargantua and Pantagruel. The Spaniard Miguel de Cervantes, in Don Quixote, drew a composite portrait of his countrymen, which caught their exact mixture of idealism and realism. In England Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare used Renaissance drama to probe the deeper levels of their countrymen’s character and experiences.