12. DOGS AT WORK
107 Dogs in the workplace…: Randolph T. Barker et al. “Preliminary investigation of employee’s dog presence on stress and organizational perceptions.” International Journal of Workplace Health Management 5, no. 1 (2012): 15–30.
108 Chronically high levels of cortisol…: Robert M. Sapolsky. Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers, 3rd ed. (New York: Henry Holt, 1994).
Google’s dog policy…: “Code of Conduct.” Google Investor Relations, last modified April 24, 2012. http://investor.google.com/corporate/code-of-conduct.html#toc-dogs.
109 Dog-friendly businesses…: The website dogfriendly.com has a user-contributed list of companies that allow dogs.
Charles Darwin…: Charles Darwin. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Introduction, afterword, and commentaries by Paul Ekman. 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 55–56.
111 Darwin’s work was forgotten for more than a century…: The situation has begun to change, in large part because of the efforts of Paul Ekman, a psychologist who has extensively studied the facial expressions in humans, and Frans de Waal, an ethologist who studies primate behavior.
There have been a few exceptions…: Marc Bekoff, an ethologist at the University of Colorado at Boulder, has spent much of his career extending Darwin’s work. Bekoff has argued strenuously for the recognition of animal emotions: Marc Bekoff. The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy—and Why They Matter (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2007).
Jaak Panksepp…: Jaak Panksepp. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
112 Breaking emotion down to fundamental components…: Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer. “Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.” Psychological Review 69, no. 5 (September 1962): 379–399.
Circumplex model…: James A. Russell. “A circumplex model of affect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39, no. 6 (1980): 1161–1178.
113 The “seeking” system…: Jaak Panksepp. “The basic emotional circuits of mammalian brains: do animals have affective lives?” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35, no. 9 (October 2011): 1791–1804.
14. BIG QUESTIONS
126 Electrical stimulation of dog brains…: Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig. “Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns” [Electric excitability of the cerebrum]. Archiv fuer Anatomie, Physiologie und Wissenschaftliche Medicin 37 (1870): 300–322. T. Gorska. “Functional organization of cortical motor areas in adult dogs and puppies.” Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 34, no. 1 (1974): 171–203.
127 Caudate nucleus and reward…: Reward processing is most closely associated with the nucleus accumbens, which is a subregion of the caudate. This region is also called the ventral striatum. For brevity, I refer to both as the caudate.
Wolfram Schultz and measurement of caudate activity…: Wolfram Schultz et al. “Neuronal activity in the monkey ventral striatum related to the expectation of reward.” Journal of Neuroscience 12, no. 12 (December 1992): 4595–4610.
16. A NEW WORLD
155 Dog brain images from University of Minnesota Canine Brain MRI Atlas (http://vanat.cvm.umn.edu/mriBrainAtlas/) by T. F. Fletcher and T. C. Saveraid, 2009.
156 Reverse inference…: Russell A. Poldrack. “The role of fMRI in cognitive neuroscience: where do we stand?” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 18, no. 2 (April 2008): 223–227.
Reverse inference in the caudate…: Dan Ariely and Gregory S. Berns. “Neuromarketing: the hope and hype of neuroimaging in business.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11, no. 4 (April 2010): 284–292.
157 Love and the caudate…: Arthur Aron et al. “Reward, motivation, and emotion systems associated with early-stage intense romantic love.” Journal of Neurophysiology 94, no. 1 (July 2005): 327–337.
17. PEAS AND HOT DOGS
164 Side preference in dogs…: Camille Ward and Barbara B. Smuts. “Quantity-based judgments in the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris).” Animal Cognition 10, no. 1 (January 2007): 71–80.
18. THROUGH A DOG’S EYES
169 Signal-to-noise ratio…: The SNR increases roughly by a factor of √N, where N is the number of repetitions. For example, 100 repetitions would increase the SNR by a factor of 10.
173 Dogs used attentional cues from humans…: Márta Gácsi et al. “Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs (Canis familiaris) show situation-dependent recognition of human’s attention.” Animal Cognition 7, no. 3 (July 2004): 144–153. Dogs are sensitive to the social context…: Juliane Kaminski et al. “Domestic dogs are sensitive to a human’s perspective.” Behaviour 146, no. 7 (2009): 979–998. Alexandra Horowitz. “Theory of mind in dogs? Examining method and concept.” Learning and Behavior 39, no. 4 (December 2011): 314–317.
174 Knowing how to read people and how to behave in different social settings is the difference between success and failure…: Gregory Berns. Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2008).
19. EUREKA!
182 Nothing in the brain implies an understanding of meaning…: When I first presented the findings to a group of psychologists, this is exactly what they said.
Dogs’ ability to intuit the meaning of human social signals…: Brian Hare and Michael Tomasello. “Human-like social skills in dogs?” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, no. 9 (September 2005): 439–444. Brian Hare, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello. “Communication of food location between human and dog (Canis familiaris).” Evolution of Communication 2, no. 1 (1998): 137–159. See also A. Miklósi et al. “Use of experimenter-given cues in dogs.” Animal Cognition 1, no. 2 (1998): 113–121.
Social cognition of wolves and chimpanzees…: Brian Hare et al. “The domestication of social cognition in dogs.” Science 298, no. 5598 (November 2002): 1634–1636. See also Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods. The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are Smarter than You Think (New York: Dutton, 2013).
183 Kool-Aid experiment…: Giuseppe Pagnoni et al. “Activity in human ventral striatum locked to errors of reward prediction.” Nature Neuroscience 5, no. 2 (2002): 97–98.
Dysfunctional caudate in addiction…: Nora D. Volkow et al. “Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, no. 37 (September 2011): 15037–15042.