9. Uri Hasson et al., “A Hierarchy of Temporal Receptive Windows in Human Cortex,” Journal of Neuroscience 28, no. 10 (March 5, 2008): 2539–50.
10. Marina Bedny et al., “Language Processing in the Occipital Cortex of Congenitally Blind Adults,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 11 (March 15, 2011): 4429–34.
11. Daniel E. Feldman, “Synaptic Mechanisms for Plasticity in Neocortex,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 32 (2009): 33–55.
12. Aaron C. Koralek et al., “Corticostriatal Plasticity Is Necessary for Learning Intentional Neuroprosthetic Skills,” Nature 483 (March 15, 2012): 331–35.
13. E-mail communication from Randal Koene, January 2012.
14. Min Fu, Xinzhu Yu, Ju Lu, and Yi Zuo, “Repetitive Motor Learning Induces Coordinated Formation of Clustered Dendritic Spines in Vivo,” Nature 483 (March 1, 2012): 92–95.
15. Dario Bonanomi et al., “Ret Is a Multifunctional Coreceptor That Integrates Diffusible- and Contact-Axon Guidance Signals,” Cell 148, no. 3 (February 2012): 568–82.
16. See endnote 7 in chapter 11.
Chapter 5: The Old Brain
1. Vernon B. Mountcastle, “The View from Within: Pathways to the Study of Perception,” Johns Hopkins Medical Journal 136 (1975): 109–31.
2. B. Roska and F. Werblin, “Vertical Interactions Across Ten Parallel, Stacked Representations in the Mammalian Retina,” Nature 410, no. 6828 (March 29, 2001): 583–87; “Eye Strips Images of All but Bare Essentials Before Sending Visual Information to Brain, UC Berkeley Research Shows,” University of California at Berkeley news release, March 28, 2001, www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2001/03/28_wers1.xhtml.
3. Lloyd Watts, “Reverse-Engineering the Human Auditory Pathway,” in J. Liu et al., eds., WCCI 2012 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2012), 47–59. Lloyd Watts, “Real-Time, High-Resolution Simulation of the Auditory Pathway, with Application to Cell-Phone Noise Reduction,” ISCAS (June 2, 2010): 3821–24. For other papers see http://www.lloydwatts.com/publications.xhtml.
4. See Sandra Blakeslee, “Humanity? Maybe It’s All in the Wiring,” New York Times, December 11, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/09/science/09BRAI.xhtml.
5. T. E. J. Behrens et al., “Non-Invasive Mapping of Connections between Human Thalamus and Cortex Using Diffusion Imaging,” Nature Neuroscience 6, no. 7 (July 2003): 750–57.
6. Timothy J. Buschman et al., “Neural Substrates of Cognitive Capacity Limitations,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 27 (July 5, 2011): 11252–55, http://www.pnas.org/content/108/27/11252.long.
7. Theodore W. Berger et al., “A Cortical Neural Prosthesis for Restoring and Enhancing Memory,” Journal of Neural Engineering 8, no. 4 (August 2011).
8. Basis functions are nonlinear functions that can be combined linearly (by adding together multiple weighted-basis functions) to approximate any nonlinear function. A. Pouget and L. H. Snyder, “Computational Approaches to Sensorimotor Transformations,” Nature Neuroscience 3, no. 11 Supplement (November 2000): 1192–98.
9. J. R. Bloedel, “Functional Heterogeneity with Structural Homogeneity: How Does the Cerebellum Operate?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15, no. 4 (1992): 666–78.
10. S. Grossberg and R. W. Paine, “A Neural Model of Cortico-Cerebellar Interactions during Attentive Imitation and Predictive Learning of Sequential Handwriting Movements,” Neural Networks 13, no. 8–9 (October–November 2000): 999–1046.
11. Javier F. Medina and Michael D. Mauk, “Computer Simulation of Cerebellar Information Processing,” Nature Neuroscience 3 (November 2000): 1205–11.
12. James Olds, “Pleasure Centers in the Brain,” Scientific American (October 1956): 105–16. Aryeh Routtenberg, “The Reward System of the Brain,” Scientific American 239 (November 1978): 154–64. K. C. Berridge and M. L. Kringelbach, “Affective Neuroscience of Pleasure: Reward in Humans and Other Animals,” Psychopharmacology 199 (2008): 457–80. Morten L. Kringelbach, The Pleasure Center: Trust Your Animal Instincts (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Michael R. Liebowitz, The Chemistry of Love (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983). W. L. Witters and P. Jones-Witters, Human Sexuality: A Biological Perspective (New York: Van Nostrand, 1980).
Chapter 6: Transcendent Abilities
1. Michael Nielsen, Reinventing Discovery: The New Era of Networked Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 1–3. T. Gowers and M. Nielsen, “Massively Collaborative Mathematics,” Nature 461, no. 7266 (2009): 879–81. “A Combinatorial Approach to Density Hales-Jewett,” Gowers’s Weblog, http://gowers.wordpress.com/2009/02/01/a-combinatorial-approach-to-density-hales-jewett/. Michael Nielsen, “The Polymath Project: Scope of Participation,” March 20, 2009, http://michaelnielsen.org/blog/?p=584. Julie Rehmeyer, “SIAM: Massively Collaborative Mathematics,” Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, April 1, 2010, http://www.siam.org/news/news.php?id=1731.
2. P. Dayan and Q. J. M. Huys, “Serotonin, Inhibition, and Negative Mood,” PLoS Computational Biology 4, no. 1 (2008), http://compbiol.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.0040004.
Chapter 7: The Biologically Inspired Digital Neocortex
1. Gary Cziko, Without Miracles: Universal Selection Theory and the Second Darwinian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1955).
2. David Dalrymple has been a mentee of mine since he was eight years old in 1999. You can read his background here: http://esp.mit.edu/learn/teachers/davidad/bio.xhtml, and http://www.brainsciences.org/Research-Team/mr-david-dalrymple.xhtml.
3. Jonathan Fildes, “Artificial Brain ‘10 Years Away,’” BBC News, July 22, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8164060.stm. See also the video “Henry Markram on Simulating the Brain: The Next Decisive Years,” http://www.kurzweilai.net/henry-markram-simulating-the-brain-next-decisive-years.
4. M. Mitchell Waldrop, “Computer Modelling: Brain in a Box,” Nature News, February 22, 2012, http://www.nature.com/news/computer-modelling-brain-in-a-box-1.10066.
5. Jonah Lehrer, “Can a Thinking, Remembering, Decision-Making Biologically Accurate Brain Be Built from a Supercomputer?” Seed, http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/out_of_the_blue/.