3. The argument was also developed in Fernand Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, volume 2, 15–18th Centuries, The Wheels of Commerce, London: Collins, 1982, pages 68ff.
4. Michael McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communication and Commerce, AD 300–900, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001, page 794.
5. Ibid., pages 704–708.
6. Ibid., page 344.
7. Ibid., page 789.
8. Ibid., page 790. Recent underwater excavations have supported this argument. See: Dalya Alberge, ‘Shipwrecks cast new light on the Dark Ages’, The (London) Times, 9 June 2004, page 8.
9. McCormack, Op. cit., page 796.
10. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony, Op. cit., page 4.
11. Ibid., page 3.
12. Ibid., page 19.
13. Ibid., page 357.
14. Ibid., page 34.
15. Ibid., page 360.
16. Needham, The Great Titration, Op. cit., page 121.
17. Ibid., page 150. But Frye, Op. cit., pages 194–195, says nearby Sogdiana was very different, with a thriving merchant class.
18. Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science in Islam, China and the West, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993, page 120.
19. Ibid., page 129.
20. Ibid., page 189.
21. Douglas North and Robert Thomas, The Rise of the Western World, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1973, page 33.
22. Ibid., pages 34–35.
23. Ibid., page 41.
24. Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000–1700 (third edition), London and New York: Routledge, 2003, page 141.
25. Ibid., pages 160–161.
26. Ibid., page 180. See also: J. R. S. Phillips, The Medieval Expansion of Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, page 103.
27. Anthony Pagden (editor), The Idea of Europe, Cambridge, England, and Washington: Cambridge University Press/Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2002, page 81.
28. Ibid., page 84.
29. R. W. Southern, Scholastic Humanism and the Unification of Europe, volume 1, Foundations, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1995, page 1.
30. Pagden (editor), Op. cit., pages 83–84.
31. Southern, Op. cit., page 2.
32. Ibid., page 3.
33. Ibid., pages 4–5.
34. Ibid., page 5.
35. Ibid., pages 5–6.
36. Herbert Musurillo SJ, Symbolism and the Christian Imagination, Dublin: Helicon, 1962, page 152.
37. Ibid. See Moynahan, The Faith, Op. cit., pages 206ff, for general events around the year AD 1000.
38. Southern, Op. cit., page 6.
39. Ibid., page 11.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid., pages 189–190.
42. Southern, Op. cit., pages 205–206. See also: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 242.
43. D. A. Callus (editor), Robert Grosseteste, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955, page 98.
44. Ibid., page 106.
45. Colin Morris, The Discovery of the Individuaclass="underline" 1050–1200, London: SPCK, 1972, pages 161ff. See also Freeman, The Closing of the Western Mind, Op. cit., page 335. Robert Pasnau, Aquinas on Human Nature, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
46. Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind, Op. cit., page 177.
47. Ibid., page 181.
48. Ibid., page 188. See also: Joseph Canning, A History of Medieval Political Thought, 300–1450, London: Routledge, 1996, pages 132–133, who emphasises that Aquinas did not accord total autonomy to the secular world.
49. Tarnas, Op. cit., page 191.
50. Robert Benson and Giles Constable (editors), Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, page 45.
51. Ibid., page 56.
52. Ibid., page 61.
53. Ibid., pages 65–66.
54. Ibid., pages 150–151. See Moynahan, Op. cit., page 229, for the range of views about Jerusalem.
55. Morris, Op. cit., page 23.
56. Ibid., pages 26–27.
57. Ibid., page 28. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 216.
58. Morris, Op. cit., page 27.
59. Ibid., page 31.
60. Musurillo SJ, Op. cit., page 135.
61. Morris, Op. cit., page 34.
62. Benson and Constable (editors), Op. cit., page 67.
63. Ibid., page 71.
64. Ibid. See Moynahan, Op. cit., page 302, for Lateran IV and transubstantiation. This question of intention was matched by a keen interest in the twelfth century in psychology. For example, two lovers in Chretien de Troyes’ Cliges spend several pages debating their feelings for one another. Many theological works – for the first time – examined whatever affectus or affectio influenced someone’s actions. Psychology was understood as the ‘Godward movement of the soul’. Morris, Op. cit., page 76.
65. Georges Duby (editor), Arthur Goldhamer (translator), A History of Private Life, volume II, Revelations of the Medieval World, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1988, pages 272–273.
66. Ibid., page 512.
67. Ibid., page 538.
68. Benson and Constable (editors), Op. cit., page 281.
69. Morris, Op. cit., page 79.
70. Ibid., page 84.
71. Ibid., page 85.
72. See Musurillo SJ, Op. cit., chapters 10 and 11, for a somewhat different view, and the gradual escape of the Christian imagination from St Augustine’s influence, as revealed through poetry.
73. Morris, Op. cit., page 88.
74. Illuminated manuscripts show the same naturalism and interest in individual character.
75. Morris, Op. cit., page 90.
76. Ibid., pages 134ff.
77. Christopher Brooke, The Age of the Cloister, Stroud, England: Sutton Publishing, 2003, page 110.
78. Ibid., page 10.
79. Ibid., page 18.
80. Ibid., pages 126ff.
81. Ibid., page 211.
82. Morris, Op. cit., page 283. The speed of canonisation also reflected this change. See: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 247.