22. Bodmer, Op. cit., pages 212–213.
23. Elliott, Op. cit., page 34.
24. Ibid., page 36.
25. Ibid., page 37.
26. Leithäuser, Op. cit., pages 165–166 for Indian drawings of these activities.
27. Bodmer, Op. cit., pages 60–61.
28. Elliott, Op. cit., page 38.
29. Ibid., page 39.
30. Acosta had a theory that minerals ‘grew’ in the New World, like plants. Bodmer, Op. cit., pages 144–145.
31. Elliott, Op. cit., page 39.
32. Ibid., pages 39–40.
33. Evgenii G. Kushnarev (edited and translated by E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughan), Bering’s Search for the Strait, Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1990 (first published in Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 1968). For Cartier and Nicolet see Phillips, The Medieval Expansion of Europe, Op. cit., page 259.
34. Elliott, Op. cit., page 40.
35. Bodmer, Op. cit., pages 209ff, for a discussion of the meaning of ‘barbarity’ in this context. See also: ‘Savages noble and ignoble: concepts of the North American Indian’, chapter 7 (pages 187ff) of: P. J. Marshall and Glyndwr Williams, The Great Map of Mankind: Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment, London: Dent, 1982.
36. Leithäuser, Op. cit., for a vivid description of Tenochtitlán, in Mexico, and its sophisticated engineering and art works.
37. Elliott, Op. cit., pages 42–43.
38. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 67.
39. Elliott, Op. cit., page 43.
40. Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 39.
41. Ibid., page 49. See Moynahan, Op. cit., page 508, for the legalistic thinking behind this.
42. This view envisaged the Indian as one day becoming a free man but until that time arrived he must remain ‘in just tutelage under the king of Spain’. Pagden, Op. cit., page 104.
43. Wright, Op. cit., page 23. Also: Bodmer, Op. cit., pages 143–144. And Moynahan, Op. cit., page 510.
44. Pagden, Op. cit., page 45.
45. Ibid., page 46.
46. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 510. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 144.
47. Pagden, Op. cit., page 119.
48. Leithäuser, Op. cit., pages 197ff, for the development of detailed maps of America.
49. Elliott, Op. cit., page 49.
50. Pagden, Op. cit., page 164.
51. Ibid., page 174.
52. There was also a theory that the precious metals of the world were collected in a fabulous region near the equator, and that the American natives knew where this region was. Padre José de Acosta, Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, Madrid, 1954, pages 88–89, quoted in Bodmer, Op. cit., page 155.
53. Elliott, Op. cit., pages 49–50.
54. Ibid., page 51.
55. Ibid., page 52.
56. Alvin M. Josephy Jr (editor), America in 1492, New York: Vintage, 1991/1993, page 6.
57. William McLeish, The Day Before America, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994, page 168.
58. Moreover, the Sioux and many other tribes that became famous as Plains warriors were not yet living on the plains in 1492. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 8.
59. Ibid., page 34.
60. J. C. Furnas, The Americas: A Social History of the United States, 1587–1914, London: Longman, 1970, which includes details of the things Europeans tried to learn from the Indians.
61. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 76.
62. Ibid., pages 170–171.
63. McLeish, Op. cit., page 131.
64. Ibid., page 195.
65. Ibid., page 196.
66. Ibid., page 194.
67. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 251. See Coe, Op. cit., page 48, for a chart on the classification and time-depth of thirty-one Mayan languages.
68. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 253.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., page 254.
71. The central Alaskan Yupik Indians became famous for their many words for snow, distinguishing ‘snow on the ground’, ‘light snow’, ‘deep, soft snow’, ‘snow about to avalanche’, ‘drifting snow’ and ‘snow blocks’. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 255.
72. Ibid., page 262.
73. Ibid., page 263.
74. Furnas, Op. cit., page 366, says the Apaches were the least amenable to conversion by the Jesuits.
75. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 278.
76. Ibid., page 291. See Coe, Op. cit., page 136, for the relation between Hopi grammar and their view of the world.
77. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 294.
78. McLeish, Op. cit., page 233.
79. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 309.
80. The grave of a former shaman would be disinterred after a few years and the remains burned and turned into a special magic potion, consumed at a special ceremony, so that the men who came after him could acquire some of his wisdom. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 312.
81. Ibid., page 326.
82. Ibid., page 329.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid., page 330.
85. Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: The ‘New World’ Through Indian Eyes, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992, examines five New World civilizations – Aztec, Inca, Maya, Cherokee and Iroquois – and their reactions to invasion. Wright describes, for example, the Incas’ vast storage systems, their complex irrigation networks, their synthesis of earlier civilisations. It is a fascinating attempt to get inside the mind of the Indians and then goes on to explore their reactions, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, to the takeover of their land. (See this chapter, pages 454–455.)
86. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 343. But see Coe, Op. cit., pages 59–60, for Aztec/Inca chronology.
87. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 343.
88. Ibid., page 367.
89. Ibid., page 372.
90. Ibid.
91. Coe, Op. cit., page 118, for a diagram of how Aztec writing could be built up.
92. Josephy (editor), Op. cit., page 375.
93. Ibid., page 375–376.
94. Ibid., page 377.
95. Ibid., page 381.
96. Furnas, Op. cit., page 166, notes some instructive parallels between Aztec religion and Christianity, including the equivalent of Eve, the serpent and the Flood.