24. Ibid., page 160.
25. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 88.
26. See the discussion on Innerlichkeit in Chapter 33 and in the Conclusion.
27. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 352–353, for the ferocity – and popularity – of Luther’s writings. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 115, says these writings, and Luther’s translations of the Bible, established German as a literary language.
28. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 119.
29. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 92. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 384–385.
30. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 93.
31. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 386.
32. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 120.
33. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 94. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 386–387, for the operation of the Consistory.
34. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 121.
35. See Harro Höpfl (editor and translator), Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
36. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 96–97.
37. It was the artisans who flocked to Geneva at this time who created the watchmaking business for which Switzerland is still known. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 396.
38. In Geneva no deviation was tolerated. But foreigners who came to Switzerland to learn from Calvin – John Knox, for example – had to return to their own countries, where they were very much in a minority and therefore often had to ask for religious toleration. In general then the Calvinists became ‘anti-absolutists’, supporting the rights of minorities. In a sense this made them proto-democrats. It was another half-step towards modern political thinking. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 99.
39. Ibid., pages 105–106.
40. Manchester, Op. cit., page 193.
41. Ibid., page 195.
42. For the background, see: M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, London: Longman, Greene & Co., 1919, pages 309ff.
43. Ibid., pages 322–323.
44. Ibid., pages 340ff.
45. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 421.
46. Manchester, Op. cit., page 199.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid., page 201. A papal reform commission was installed in 1536 but the differences with the Protestants were too large. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 422–423.
49. Manchester, Op. cit., pages 201–202.
50. Jardine, Worldly Goods, Op. cit., page 172.
51. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 432.
52. Ibid., page 440.
53. Sir Thomas More went so far as to say that Henry had more learning ‘than any English monarch ever possessed before him’. Manchester, Op. cit., page 203.
54. Ibid., page 203.
55. McGrath, In the Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible, Op. cit., page 72, for the exact dates of the translation.
56. Manchester, Op. cit., page 204.
57. Ibid. McGrath, Op. cit., page 72, for the rediscovery of the Cologne sheets.
58. McGrath, Op. cit., pages 75–76, for the quality of the English.
59. Manchester, Op. cit., page 205.
60. Bamber Gascoigne, The Christians, London: Jonathan Cape, 1977, page 186.
61. Ibid., page 186. Volterra was always known afterwards as ‘the breeches maker’.
62. MacCulloch, Op. cit., page 226.
63. Michael A. Mullet, The Catholic Reformation, London: Routledge, 1999, page 38.
64. Ibid., pages 38–39.
65. Ibid., page 40.
66. Ibid., page 45.
67. Ibid., page 47.
68. Ibid., page 68. See Jacque le Goff, ‘The time of Purgatory’, in The Medieval Imagination, Op. cit., pages 67–77.
69. The effects of Trent: to begin with, the struggle against Protestantism was viewed by the church as a fight with heretics, with break-away sects, as had happened with the Cathars in the twelfth century. For example, the Duke of Alva, who led the reign of terror deemed necessary to keep the Low Countries safe for Catholic Spain, had his portrait painted showing him as a Crusader. No less a figure than Vasari was commissioned to paint two pictures in the Vatican, depicting two episodes of the 1570s, ‘as if they were equally important Catholic victories’. They were the battle of Lepanto, where the Turkish navy was defeated; and the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre, where ‘numberless’ Protestants in Paris were snatched from their beds and murdered in the streets. Such was the Catholic joy at this grisly ‘victory’ that a commemorative medal was struck, which actually showed the Huguenots being slaughtered. Gascoigne, Op. cit., page 187.
70. Ibid., page 185. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 419.
71. Gascoigne, Op. cit., page 419.
72. Ibid., page 186.
73. Ibid., page 189.
74. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 558ff, for Xavier in Japan.
75. Gascoigne, Op. cit., pages 192–193; and Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 560–561 for the crucifixions.
76. MacCulloch, Op. cit., page 586.
77. Ibid., page 587.
78. Ibid., page 589.
79. Ibid., page 651.
80. Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy: 1600–1750, London: Penguin, 1958/1972, page 1.
81. Ibid.
82. Germain Bazin, The Baroque, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1968, page 36, for the religiosity of famous artists.
83. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 12.
84. Much of the coloured marble for St Peter’s was taken from ancient buildings. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 10.
85. Peter and Linda Murray, Penguin Dictionary of Art and Artists, Op. cit., page 38.
86. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 17.
87. Bazin, Op. cit., pages 104–105.
88. Wittkower, Op. cit., page 18.
CHAPTER 23: THE GENIUS OF THE EXPERIMENT
1. Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800, New York: Free Press, 1949, revised edition 1957.
2. Margaret J. Ostler (editor), Rethinking the Scientific Revolution, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2000, page 25.
3. J. D. Bernal, Science in History, Op. cit., page 132.
4. Ibid., page 133. See also: MacCulloch, Reformation, Op. cit., page 78. And: Richard H. Popkin, The Third Force in Seventeenth-Century Thought, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992, page 102.