71. Roch (editor), Op. cit., pages 80ff.
72. Locy, Op. cit., page 216.
73. Ibid., page 217.
74. He later observed the same phenomenon in the webbing of a frog’s foot, and in the tails of young fishes and eels.
75. Mayr, Op. cit., page 138. Marcello Malpighi in Italy and Nehemiah Grew in England brought the microscope to bear not on animals but on plants. An interest in plants had been stimulated by the exotic species brought back from the New World (and Africa) by explorers. Ibid., pages 100–101. Both men published superbly illustrated books on the anatomy of plants and, by an extraordinary coincidence, on the very day that Grew’s book was delivered from the printer, Malpighi’s manuscript was deposited at the Royal Society in London. Ibid., page 387. In Malpighi’s book Anatome plantarum, the cells which make up the various structures are named utriculi. He observed different kinds of cells within plants – those that carry air, sap, and so on, and the same is broadly true of Grew in his book The Anatomy of Plants. Ibid., page 385. But, although he observed cells, referring to them as ‘bladders’, Grew did not explore them any further either (others later called cells ‘bubbles’). Neither man realised that the cell was the basic building block of life, from which all more complex organisms are constructed. The idea was not developed for more than two centuries.
76. Mayr, Op. cit., pages 100 and 658–659.
77. Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind, Op. cit., page 272.
78. Ibid., page 273; see also Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 155 and 158.
79. Tarnas, Op. cit., page 274.
80. Robert Merton, Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth-Century England, Bruges, 1938, chapter 15.
81. Boyer, Op. cit., page 336.
82. Ibid., page 337; and Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 166–167.
83. Cartesian geometry is now synonymous with analytical geometry.
84. Tarnas, Op. cit., page 277. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 164. Popkin, Op. cit., pages 237–238.
85. Tarnas, Op. cit., pages 280–281.
86. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 183–184.
87. Bernal, Science in History, Op. cit., page 462. Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 183ff, for the very first meeting; he says that originally there was a list of forty potential members.
88. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 182. Zimmer, Op. cit., page 95, says there was another early Oxford group: the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Group.
89. Zimmer, Op. cit., page 184.
90. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 185; see also Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 96 and 100.
91. Lisa Jardine, Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scientific Revolution, New York: Doubleday, 1999; see also Zimmer, Op. cit., pages 185–186. Lisa Jardine, The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man who Measured London, London: HarperCollins, 2003.
92. Mordechai Feingold, The Mathematicians’ Apprenticeship: Science, Universities and Society in England: 1560–1640, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pages 6, 122 and 215.
93. Ibid., page 215.
94. Peter Burke, A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot, Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2000, 45.
95. Ibid., page 103.
96. Ibid., page 135.
97. Ostler (editor), Op. cit., page 43.
98. Ibid., page 44.
99. Ibid., page 45.
100. Ibid., page 49. Carl Zimmer’s point, about the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Group (note 88 above), underlines this aspect.
101. In Ostler (editor), Op. cit., page 50.
CHAPTER 24: LIBERTY, PROPERTY AND COMMUNITY: THE ORIGINS OF CONSERVATISM AND LIBERALISM
1. Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism, Op. cit., page 17.
2. John Bowle, Western Political Thought, London: Cape, 1947/1954, page 288.
3. Schulze, Op. cit., page 28.
4. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 28.
5. Allan H. Gilbert, The Prince and Other Works, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941, page 29.
6. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 31.
7. In particular, for example, he thought that religion, by which he meant Christianity, hindered the development of a strong state, because it preached meekness. At the same time he thought that some form of religion was desirable, because it acted as a social ‘glue’ that kept people together. But this too was new, in that it was the first time anyone had (openly, at any rate) conceived religion as a coercive rather than as a spiritual force. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 34; Boorstin, Op. cit., page 178.
8. Schulze, Op. cit., page 30.
9. Ibid., page 31.
10. N. Machiavelli, The Prince, translated by Peter Whitshome (1560), reprinted 1905, chapter 18, page 323.
11. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 178.
12. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 36.
13. Ibid., page 32.
14. Bowle, Op. cit., pages 270–272.
15. Allied with its national character, Protestantism laid the spiritual/psychological basis for a political sovereignty based in the people. Calvin’s insistence on the preeminence of individual conscience, which even allowed for tyrannicide against Catholic rulers on confessional grounds, became the forerunner of the right of rebellion, which was to become such a characteristic of later times. Taken together, these elements would lead eventually to the democratic theory of the state. The purpose of the state, for the early Protestants, was to protect the congregations within it, not in itself to provide the spiritual development of the people. ‘The best things in life are not in the state’s province at all.’ Bowle, Op. cit., pages 280–281.
16. Ibid., pages 281–282.
17. Jonathan Wright, The Jesuits: Mission, Myths and Historians, London: HarperCollins, 2004, pages 148–149.
18. Bowle, Op. cit., page 285.
19. Ibid.
20. Reinhard Bendix, Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule, Op. cit., pages 307ff; see also: John Dunn (editor), Democracy: The Unfinished Journey: 508 BC to AD 1993, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, especially pages 71ff.
21. Schulze, Op. cit., page 49.
22. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 455, says the years 1562–1598 were the ones stained worst by massacres, murders and eight wars.
23. Schulze, Op. cit., page 50.
24. Bowle, Op. cit., page 290. Many (French) Huguenots emigrated to America after Louis XIV withdrew toleration in 1685. See: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 576.