13. Hall, Op. cit., page 315.
14. Lane, Op. cit., pages 68–69.
15. Hall, Op. cit., page 316.
16. Ibid., page 319.
17. Ibid., page 308.
18. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 41.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Hall, Op. cit., pages 311–312.
22. Deane, Op. cit., page 22.
23. Ibid.
24. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., pages 64–65.
25. Ibid., page 5.
26. Ibid., page 7.
27. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962, page 63.
28. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 7.
29. Hall, Op. cit., page 308.
30. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 262.
31. Ibid., page 282.
32. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 600.
33. Ibid., pages 286–287.
34. Kleist is ignored in many histories. See Michael Brian Schiffer, Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, page 46.
35. In turn, in the hands of André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Georg Ohm (1787–1854), far more was learned about magnetic fields produced by currents and the way these flowed through conductors. Current electricity was now a quantitative science. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 285.
36. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 620.
37. Ibid., page 621.
38. Jean-Pierre Poirier, Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, pages 72ff, ‘The Oxygen Dispute’. Nick Lane, Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
39. Poirier, Op. cit., pages 72ff.
40. Ibid., pages 102ff, for the new chemistry; pages 105ff for the formation of acids; page 107 for combustion; pages 61ff for the calcinations of metals; and page 150 for the analysis of water.
41. John Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, London: R. Bickerstaff, 1808–1827 (reprinted 1953), volume II, section 13, pages 1ff and volume I, pages 231ff. And see the diagrams facing page 218.
42. Barnes, Op. cit., page 681.
43. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 625.
44. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 323.
45. Ibid., page 324.
46. Robin Reilly, Josiah Wedgwood, 1730–1795, London: Macmillan, 1992, page 183.
47. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 325.
48. Reilly, Op. cit., page 314.
49. Ibid., page 327. Samuel Galton, grandfather of Francis, the founder of eugenics, was yet another who moved on from the Warrington Academy to the Lunar Society: he formed one of the earliest collections of scientific instruments. Thomas Day was most famous for his children’s stories; he wrote ‘pompously and vapidly’, according to one account, but he lent money to the other members to support their activities. Robert E. Schofield, The Lunar Society of Birmingham: A Social History on Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth Century England, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963, page 53. James Keir, a former professional soldier, tried his hand at extracting alkalis from kelp (his method worked but the yield was too small) and then, having fought in France, and being fluent in French, translated Macquer’s Dictionary of Chemistry, a distinguished (and highly practical) work, which helped establish the reputation of the Lunar Society.
50. John Graham Gillam, The Crucible: The Story of Joseph Priestley LLD, FRS, London: Robert Hale, 1959, page 138.
51. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 329.
52. Ibid., page 330.
53. Ibid., page 329.
54. See: Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, London: Faber & Faber, 2002, especially pages 210–221, 237, 370 and 501.
55. Schofield, Op. cit., page 440.
56. When the state of Massachusetts made its famous protest in the 1760s, that the British government had no right to tax the colony because there was no representative of Massachusetts in Parliament, part of the British government’s reply was that Manchester had no representation either. Henry Steel Commager, The Empire of Reason: How Europe Imagined and America Realised the Enlightenment, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978/2000; but see also Gillam, Op. cit., page 182, for the atmosphere in Birmingham.
57. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 23.
58. Ibid., pages 25–26.
59. Ibid., pages 22–23, for a good discussion of the controversy.
60. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, London: Gollancz, 1963, page 807f.
61. Ibid., chapter 16, pages 781ff.
62. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 339.
63. Athol Fitzgibbons, Adam Smith’s System of Liberty, Wealth and Virtue: The Moral and Political Foundation of the Wealth of Nations, Oxford: The Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1995, pages 5ff.
64. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 246.
65. David Weatherall, David Ricardo, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976, page 27, for his break with religion.
66. Ibid., page 147.
67. J. K. Galbraith, A History of Economics, London: Hamish Hamilton/Penguin Books, 1987/1991, page 84.
68. Ibid., page 118.
69. R. W. Harris, Romanticism and the Social Order, London: Blandford, 1969, page 78.
70. Frank Podmore, Robert Owen, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1968, page 188.
71. A. L. Morton, The Life and Ideas of Robert Owen, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1963, page 92.
72. Ibid., pages 88ff.
73. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 450ff.
74. Harris, Op. cit., page 80. Podmore, Op. cit., page 88, and page 80 for a photograph of the New Lanark mills.
75. He also provided an institute where evening lectures were given for those who wanted to carry on learning after they left school. Morton. Op. cit., page 106.
76. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 456.
77. Another of his ideas was the so-called ‘Owenite communities’ (in London, Birmingham, Norwich and Sheffield) where he brought craftsmen together to manufacture their own wares without the involvement of capitalist employers. Owen always remained convinced that capitalism was ‘an inherently evil system’ and he wanted others to share his vision. This is the main reason why he was such a passionate advocate of trades unionism. It was Owen who had the idea of labour exchanges, a system whereby craftsmen were able to exchange their own products for ‘labour notes’ that, in turn, could be exchanged for goods (another device to sideline the capitalist system). Most of these other ideas failed too, at least in the form that Owen conceived them. But, as R. W. Harris has pointed out, Owen was a visionary rather than an organiser. Many of his ideas would eventually become important elements in labour politics in the latter half of the nineteenth century and throughout most of the twentieth. Harris, Op. cit., page 84.