78. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., pages 298–299, for the importance of lubrication in the industrial revolution.
79. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, Op. cit., page 69.
80. Ibid., page 72.
81. Ibid., page 73.
82. See also Engels’ conversation on the subject with a Mancunian. Hobsbawm, Op. cit., page 182.
83. David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, London: Macmillan, 1973, page 130.
84. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 127.
85. Ibid., page 128. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 53, for Marx’s relations with Hegel.
86. Jews in France were hopeful of a better future. Hobsbawm, Op. cit., page 197.
87. Terrell Carver (editor), The Cambridge Companion to Marx, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991, page 56.
88. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 435.
89. Ibid., page 436.
90. McLellan, Op. cit., page 299ff.
91. Ibid., page 334.
92. Galbraith, Op. cit., pages 128–129.
93. McLellan, Op. cit., pages 299–300 and 349–350.
94. Ibid., pages 433–442.
95. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 433–442.
96. Karl Marx, Capital, volume 2, Chicago: E. Untermann, 1907, page 763. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 54.
97. McLellan, Op. cit., page 447. The International lasted until 1972.
98. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950, London: Chatto & Windus, 1958, Penguin, 1963.
99. In fact, Adam Smith was one of the first to use the word in this new way, in The Wealth of Nations.
100. Williams, Op. cit., pages 13–14.
101. Ibid., page 14.
102. Ibid., page 15.
103. Ibid., pages 15–16.
104. Ibid., page 16.
105. Ibid., page 124. See also: Nicholas Murray, A Life of Matthew Arnold, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1996, pages 243–245.
106. Williams, Op. cit., page 130; and Murray, Op. cit., page 245.
107. Williams, Op. cit., page 136 and Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, London: John Murray, 1869, page 28.
108. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 2000, passim.
109. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, Boston: Beacon Press, 1944/2001, pages 3ff.
110. Ibid., pages 5 and 7.
111. Ibid., page 15. See also: Niall Ferguson, The Cash Nexus, London: Allen Lane/Penguin, 2001/2002, pages 28–29; and 295–296. See here for a table on the growth of democracy. The irony, and paradox, that this period was also the high point of imperialism is not often explored.
CHAPTER 28: THE INVENTION OF AMERICA
1. Elliott, The Old World and the New, Op. cit., pages 54–55.
2. Ibid., page 56.
3. Ibid., page 57.
4. Samuel Eliot Morison, Henry Steel Commager and William E. Leuchtenberg, The Growth of the American Republic, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1980, volume 2, pages 4–5.
5. Elliott, Op. cit., pages 58–59.
6. Ibid., page 65.
7. See Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America, Op. cit., pages 21–22, for the respect for antiquity in Europe at the time.
8. Elliott, Op. cit., page 81.
9. Ibid., page 82.
10. Greene, Op. cit., pages 39–42.
11. Ibid., page 84; and see Greene, Op. cit., pages 28–29, for ideas about Paradise and utopia in early America.
12. Elliott, Op. cit., page 86.
13. Ibid., page 87. The virility of this new economic arrangement was sufficient even to interest the Muslims. Faced with a Spain buoyed by its successes in the Americas, and with vast reserves of silver now at its command, the Ottomans began to display some curiosity about the New World. Around 1580 a History of the West Indies was written and presented to the Sultan Murad III. Relying mainly on Italian and Spanish sources, the author wrote: ‘Within twenty years, the Spanish people have conquered all the islands and captured forty thousand people, and killed thousands of them. Let us hope to God that some time these valuable lands will be conquered by the family of Islam, and will be inhabited by Muslims and become part of the Ottoman lands.’ Ibid., page 88. (Compare Chapter 29, note 47 below.)
14. Bodmer, Armature of Conquest, Op. cit., page 212.
15. Elliott, Op. cit., page 103.
16. Ibid., pages 95–96.
17. Henry Steel Commager, The Empire of Reason, Op. cit., page 83.
18. Ibid., pages 83–84.
19. Ibid., page 84.
20. Kushnarev (edited and translated by Crownhart-Vaughan), Bering’s Search for the Strait, Op. cit., c. page 169.
21. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 106.
22. Antonello Gerbi, The Dispute of the New World: The History of a Polemic, 1750–1900, revised and enlarged edition, translated by Jeremy Moyle, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973, page 61.
23. Greene, Op. cit., page 128.
24. Gerbi, Op. cit., page 7.
25. Greene, Op. cit., page 129.
26. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 111.
27. Gerbi, Op. cit., pages 52ff.
28. Commager, Op. cit., page 16; Gary Wills, Inventing America, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978/2002, pages 99–100, for Franklin’s meeting with Voltaire.
29. Commager, Op. cit., page 17; Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 204; Hugh Brogan, The Penguin History of the United States, London: Penguin, 1985/1990, page 97.