Franz Rosenthal (ed.), The Classical Heritage in Islam, trans. from the German by Emile Marmorstein and Jenny Marmorstein (1975); and Richard Walzer, Greek into Arabic: Essays on Islamic Philosophy (1962, reissued 1970), deal with the Greek and Hellenistic background and its appropriation. Parviz Morewedge (ed.), Islamic Philosophical Theology (1979), is a major contribution by nine internationally known authorities written for advanced students. W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (1973), studies the evolution of theological thought in the 300 years after Muhammad’s death, and his Free Will and Predestination in Early Islam (1948, reissued 1972) is an excellent treatment of the formative period of Islamic theology.
Louis Gardet and M.-M. Anawati, Introduction à la théologie musulmane, 2nd ed. (1970), is a comprehensive handbook on Sunni theology; and A.J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed (1932, reprinted 1965), discusses the background and development of Sunni doctrines. Asaf A.A. Fyzee (ed. and trans.), …A Shiʿite Creed (1942), is an annotated translation of a standard Shīʿite creed by Ibn Bābawayh. The theology of the Shīʿah is given a prominent place in Henry Corbin, Histoire de la philosophie islamique (1964– ); and its early development is discussed by Wilferd Madelung, Der Imam al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm und die Glaubenslehre der Zaiditen (1965), and “Imamism and Muʿtazilite Theology,” in Le Shîʿisme imâmite, pp. 13–30 (1970).
M.M. Sharif (ed.), A History of Muslim Philosophy, 2 vol. (1963–66), is a comprehensive collective work on the history of Islamic philosophy and related subjects that is especially useful for the later medieval and modern periods. Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy (1970), is a general history. Fazlur Rahman discusses the development of the later synthesis between mysticism and philosophy in “Dream, Imagination, and ʿĀlam al-Mithāl,” Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 167–180 (June 1964), in the introduction to Selected Letters of Shaikh Aḥmad Sirhindī (1968), and in “The Eternity of the World and the Heavenly Bodies in Post-Avicennan Philosophy,” in George F. Hourani (ed.), Essays on Islamic Philosophy and Science (1975), a collection representing recent trends in interpreting Islamic philosophy. Islamic myth and legend
Tor Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben seiner Gemeinde (1917), treats the development of Muhammad-mysticism. Israel Friedländer, Die Chadhirlegende und der Alexander-Roman (1913), discusses the relation between the Alexander romance and the figure of Khiḍr. Max J.H. Horten, Die religiöse Gedankenwelt der gebildeten Muslime in heutigen Islam (1916), gives an account of popular Islam, and Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam, 2 parts (1917–18), gives an account of the ideas of educated people in Islam. Western Semitic themes are explored in A.J. Wensinck, “The Ocean in the Literature of the Western Semites,” Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, vol. 19, no. 2 (1918), and “The Ideas of the Western Semites Concerning the Navel of the Earth,” ibid., vol. 17, no. 1 (1916). Seyyed H. Nasr, Three Muslim Sages (1964, reissued 1976), gives an account of the theories of Suhrawardī al-Maqtūl and Ibn ʿArabī. Joseph Horowitz, “The Growth of the Mohammed Legend,” Moslem World, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 49–58 (January 1920), stresses the Haggadic influences. Ernst A. Zbinden, Die Djinn des Islam und der altorientalische Geisterglaube (1953), studies the different types of spirits in Islamic folklore and tradition. Rudolf Kriss and Hubert Kriss-Heinrich, Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam, 2 vol. (1960–62), presents useful studies in Islamic folklore, with extensive bibliographies. Taufic Canaan, Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927), treats Palestinian folklore. Also useful are articles in the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (1953), an authoritative collection of information, each article furnished with an extensive bibliography.