31. "Pope in Encyclical Denounces Fascisti and Defends Clubs," New York Times, July 4, 1931; "Everything Is Promised," Time, July 13, 1931. See also Emilio Gentile, Politics as Religion, trans. George Staunton (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 95.
32. David Nicholls, God and Government in an "Age of Reason" (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 80.
33. The law was passed by the Convention but was never fully implemented. Himmelfarb, "Idea of Compassion." The Tocqueville quotation is from The Old Regime and the French Revolution (New York: Anchor, 1955), p. 156, found in ibid.
34. Robespierre, speech of Feb. 5, 1794, in Modern History Sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/robespierre-terror.html.
35. Marisa Linton, "Robespierre and the Terror," History Today, Aug. 1, 2006.
36. R. J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism (London: Arnold, 1998), p. 104.
37. David Ramsay Steele, "The Mystery of Fascism," Liberty, www.laarticles.org.uk/fascism.htm (accessed March 13, 2007).
38. Muravchik, Heaven on Earth, p. 148, citing Margherita G. Sarfatti, The Life of Benito Mussolini, trans. Frederic Whyte (New York: Stokes, 1925), p. 263.
39. Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, p. 36.
40. Muravchik, Heaven on Earth, p. 149, citing Jasper Ridley, Mussolini: A Biography (New York: St. Martin's, 1997), p. 71.
41. Jeffrey T. Schnapp, pp. 3-6; Charles F. Delzell, Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945 (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), pp. 12-13.
42. Robert O. Paxton, "The Five Stages of Fascism," Journal of Modern History 70, no. 1 (March 1998), p. 15.
43. Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Vintage, 2004), p. 17; Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship, p. 39. According to Hannah Arendt, Mussolini "was probably the first party leader who consciously rejected a formal program and replaced it with inspired leadership and action alone." Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, rev. ed. (New York: Harcourt, 1966), p. 325 n. 39.
44. Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle, p. 72.
45. Arnaldo Cortesi, "Mussolini, on Radio, Gives Peace Pledge," New York Times, Jan. 2, 1931; W. Y. Elliott, "Mussolini, Prophet of the Pragmatic Era in Politics," Political Science Quarterly 41, no. 2 (June 1926), pp. 161-92.
46. Muravchik, Heaven on Earth, pp. 170, 171.
2. ADOLF HITLER: MAN OF THE LEFT
1. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (repr., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), p. 533.
2. According to Robert O. Paxton, the first example of "national socialism" as an ideological label and political precursor to fascism was the Cercle Proudhon in France in 1911, a club of intellectuals who aimed to "unite nationalists and left-wing anti-democrats" to mount an attack on "Jewish capitalism." Its founder, Georges Valois, worked tirelessly to convert the working class away from Marxist internationalism to a nation-based socialism. Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Vintage, 2004), p. 48.
3. Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini: A Biography (New York: Vintage, 1983), p. 185; Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), p. 232; Paul Johnson, Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Nineties (New York: Perennial, 1991), p. 319; Susan Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue, and Survival (repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), p. 30.
4. Joachim Fest, Hitler (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), p. 205.
5. Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 18.
6. This might be a little unfair to Chamberlain in that his appeasement was based in no small part on realpolitik while Western pacifists were often Hitler's useful idiots.
7. William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: Touchstone, 1990), p. 205.
8. John Lukacs, The Hitler of History (New York: Vintage, 1997), p. 84.
9. David Schoenbaum, Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939 (New York: Norton, 1980), p. 19; Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), p. 245.
10. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 406.
11. Ron Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil (New York: Random House, 1998), p. xii; Robert G. L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New York: Da Capo, 1993), p. 20; Eugene H. Methvin, "20th Century Superkillers," National Review, May 31, 1985, pp. 22-29.
12. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 195.
13. Schoenbaum, Hitler's Social Revolution, p. 62.
14. Roger Griffin, ed., Fascism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 123.
15. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 484, 496-97.
16. Ibid., p. 484.
17. Burleigh, Third Reich, pp. 132-33.
18. Schoenbaum, Hitler's Social Revolution, p. 59; Burleigh, Third Reich, p. 105.
19. Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came Into Power (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1938), pp. 135-39; Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century (Malabar, Fla.: Kriegler, 1982), p. 55, quoting Abel, Why Hitler Came Into Power, pp. 203-301.
20. Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime, 1919-1924 (New York: Vintage, 1995), p. 253.
21. Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Leftism: From de Sade and Marx to Hitler and Marcuse (New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1974), p. 136; Burleigh, Third Reich, p. 55.
22. John Patrick Diggins, Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), p. 217 n. 19.
23. Ibid., p. 215.
24. Sidney Hook, "The Fallacy of the Theory of Social Fascism," in American Anxieties: A Collective Portrait of the 1930s, ed. Louis Filler (Somerset, N.J.: Transaction, 1993), p. 320.
3. WOODROW WILSON AND THE BIRTH OF LIBERAL FASCISM
1. Fred Siegel, "'It Can't Happen Here,'" Weekly Standard, Aug. 14, 2006, p. 40. Amusingly, one of the most devastating critics of the book was in fact Lewis himself. At a left-wing event held to honor the book and its author, Lewis said, "Boys, I love you all. And a writer loves to have his latest book praised. But let me tell you, it isn't a very good book."
2. Sinclair Lewis, It Can't Happen Here (New York: New American Library, 2005), p. 46.
3. Ibid., pp. 16, 17.
4. Woodrow Wilson, "The Ideals of America," The Atlantic Monthly, December 1902. See also Tony Smith, America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 63; Jan Willem, Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace, trans. Herbert H. Rowen (Los Angeles, Calif.: University of California Press 1991), p. 37.