Pergamum, another centre of the Hellenistic world, was particularly famous for its school of mosaics. According to the ancient Roman historian Pliny the Younger, Sosos, one of the most renowned mosaic artists of antiquity, worked in this city. None of his works survives but, thanks to Roman copies, the intentions that underlay his art can be judged. Pliny listed as his most celebrated works a representation of drinking doves and a clever imitation of the “unswept floor” of a banquet room (asarōtos oikos). The copies tell of Sosos’s phenomenal ability to create trompe l’oeil (“fool-the-eye”) effects through a shading and colouring that seems to bring the objects out in full plasticity on the ground on which they are depicted. To call the work merely an imitation of painting may be incorrect. The intense colours and the smooth texture permitted by the new setting technique paved the way for illusionistic effects that went beyond those achieved by painting. Roman mosaics
Dionysus on a Tiger, from the Casa del Fauno, Pompeii, 2nd century bc. In the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.Kina Italia S.P.A.
Skeleton of a Cup-Bearer, from the Casa del Fauno, Pompeii, 2nd century bc. In the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.Kina Italia S.P.A.Eager to adopt the artistic culture of the Hellenized eastern Mediterranean, the Romans introduced mosaic in this exquisite form in both their domestic architecture and their places of worship. Pompeii has yielded a host of opus vermiculatum works datable to the 2nd or 1st century bce. Among these the most famous is the Battle of Issus, found in the Casa del Fauno in 1831. This is the largest of all known works, measuring about 11.22 by 19.42 feet (3.42 by 5.92 metres), in the miniature mosaic technique. This mosaic (which probably copies a work of painting, perhaps a famous picture by Philoxenus of Eretria) and other Pompeiian panels of similar quality are supposed to have been executed by Greek artists, who carried on in the tradition established at Alexandria and Pergamum.
The Romans transformed mosaic from an exclusive art to a common decorative medium. Some of the earliest examples of this new type of floor are in the late republican (2nd century bce) houses at Delos. For rooms of secondary importance and often for floors surrounding the finely designed and executed central emblēmata (a featured picture or ornamental motif) in the most important rooms, the Romans developed a simpler, less artistic kind of mosaic. The floors are set with fairly large tesserae with a limited range of colours, some tending toward monochrome (black-and-white). The decorative designs and motifs are also simple and uncomplicated.
“Battle of Alexander and Darius at Issus,” detail of the Roman mosaic done in the opus vermiculatum technique, from the Casa del Fauno, Pompeii, late 2nd century bc. In the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.SCALA/Art Resource, New York
This new trend in mosaic floors was probably stimulated by new and functional ways of thinking about the role of floors in architecture. To the practical Romans it may have seemed illogical that floors destined for rough wear should bear delicate pictures. Moreover, the demand for large-scale mosaic making brought about by the colossal urban expansion in the 1st century ce made the development of quicker and simpler techniques imperative. The aim of the Romans seems to have been to create a style, technique, and form of composition that would be simple and functional. Competition with painting in illusionistic and coloristic refinement was therefore abandoned; emblēmata gave way to decorative elements distributed over the floor in one large overall pattern or to figure compositions taking the full floor plane; and polychrome gave way to monochrome mosaics (which may have been easier to produce). Enormous floors in the baths and in the courtyards of warehouses (1st to 3rd century ce) at Ostia, Rome’s port at the mouth of the Tiber, are the best preserved examples of the monochrome style.
Roman monochrome floor mosaic, 3rd century ad; in the Portico delle Corporazioni, Ostia, Italy.SCALA/Art Resource, New York
The expressionist Roman style, which flourished in Italy, penetrated into the former Greek cities in the eastern part of the empire, but polychromy and types of composition based on the framed picture persisted with especial tenacity due to strong local Hellenistic traditions. A splendid series of emblēmata (2nd century) with mythological representations, allegories, and scenes from the theatre have been uncovered at Antioch in southern Turkey. They prove the existence of a school there of mosaicists of particular brilliance. Recent research has pointed to the African provinces as the site of another, highly active school with a taste for larger, dramatic compositions. Influence from these areas may have been responsible for the renewed opulence, represented by a vivid polychrome pictorial mosaic, which reappeared in Roman art in late antiquity. Outstanding examples of this renewal are the mosaics in the Roman villa of Casale (c. 300 ce) near Piazza Armerina, Sicily. The mosaic decoration of this vast palace complex culminates in the gallery of the Large Hunt, which contains a scene of animal hunting and fighting covering an area of 3,200 square feet (300 square metres).
It is generally agreed that in the course of the 3rd century the status of mosaic was radically altered. Already in Hellenistic times the medium had been employed for other ends than floor covering and had become part of the embellishment of the fantastic garden architecture of which the rulers of the period seem to have been particularly fond. Reflections of this tradition in the 1st century ce are the mosaic-covered fountains in the mansions at Pompeii and Herculaneum and mosaic panels and niches in rustic banquet halls and artificial grottoes at The Golden House of Nero in Rome and his villa at Anzio. Mosaic fragments and imprints of tesserae in the vaults of baths and buildings of similar size demonstrate that mosaic gradually was introduced into new fields. Equally important is the evidence that mosaic was used to depict sacred images. On some of the monochrome floors at Ostia are scenes pertaining to animal sacrifice and to the cult of the dead. Three monuments of the 3rd century inform of another new practice introduced at this time, that of putting mosaic pictures of religious importance on walls: a niche mosaic with the god Silvanus from a temple of Mithra at Ostia; a Christian wall and vault mosaic depicting Christ as Helios, the Sun God, in a mausoleum under St. Peter’s, Rome; and a decoration, now lost but recorded in a 17th-century drawing, of a chapel for the Lupercalian worship at Rome. It has been pointed out by modern scholarship that the new role gradually assumed by mosaic must be related to the corresponding decline in interest in three-dimensional representation. The cultic mosaic took over the function of the cult statue, mosaic being that two-dimensional medium which was considered most capable of convincingly expressing religious ideas in visual form.
Interior court with mosaic of Neptune and Amphitrite, from the House of Neptune and Amphitrite (1st century ad), Herculaneum, Italy.SCALA/Art Resource, New York
Early Christian mosaics
Present-day insight into the crucial early phase of this part of the history of mosaic is limited because of the loss of nearly everything that was made in the field during the first half of the 4th century. Nevertheless, as indicated above, it seems certain that wall mosaics had come into use in Roman art well before Emperor Constantine’s edict of toleration of the Christian faith in 313 ce. Considered to be among the earliest Christian wall mosaics in Rome are those in the church of Santa Costanza built about 320–330 ce as a mausoleum for Constantine’s daughter. The content of the pictures is almost completely Dionysiac and pagan, but a series of small format scenes from the Old and New Testaments were included among the non-Christian pictorial elements of the decoration. Obviously an independent Christian pictorial program for buildings of Santa Costanza’s size and complexity had not yet been developed; and, probably in lieu of that, a Dionysiac program had been chosen because its many allusions to the symbolism of wine lent themselves to a Christian interpretation.