The most common hybrid monster generally mixes differing species—e.g., the Centaur (horse-man), the Minotaur (bull-man), Echidna (snake-woman), Pegasus (horse-bird), Sphinx (woman-lion-bird), Siren (bird-woman), and Empusa (animal-metal) of Greek mythology and the griffin (lion-eagle), mermaid (woman-fish), vegetable lamb (plant-animal), barnacle goose (mollusk-bird), and mandrake (plant-man). In other instances, the characteristics are juxtapositions of different species—e.g., the tree that bears human heads as fruit; horses born from eggs; flesh-eating mares; milk-producing birds.
The most extreme form of the fluidity that is characteristic of monsters is the Protean figure who can change into any form or combination of forms at will. In all of these monstrous forms, the central notion appears to be the danger associated with beings that are out of place or are fluid. But some contemporary anthropologists have argued the opposite conclusion; i.e., rather than being threats to the classificatory system, monsters, through their startling combinations and juxtapositions, force people to think more clearly about and distinguish more sharply between the different boundaries of their world. In this interpretation, the monsters are ultimately supportive of order rather than a destructive threat to it. Relationships of transformation
One of the largest groups of animal and plant traditions in folklore and religious material is that of transformation. Familiar stories—such as Beauty and the Beast; the transformation of a man into an ass in the Metamorphoses by Apuleius, a Roman writer of the 2nd century ce; the frog king or the swan maiden, as well as such well-known traditions as that of the werewolf, the vampire, or leopard man—testify to the wide dissemination of this theme. Every permutation and combination exists: human into mammal, bird, fish, insect, reptile, amphibian, or plant; animal into human or plant; animal into another species of animal; or plant into animal. There are also partial transformations resulting in hybrid forms as well as alternating transformations—e.g., animal, human, or tree by day and the reverse at night. Another great series of transformations concerns the dead, who either transmigrate into or return in animal and plant forms.
The power to compel another to change form, or to cross boundaries oneself at will, may be judged good or evil depending on the assessment of order in the worldview of the particular culture. In the majority of instances of transformation of another, the transformation is considered to be the result of evil magical powers, and most tales conclude with the disenchantment of the subject, his release from the evil power, and his return to his original form. Many of the instances of self-transformation are for the positive purpose of transcendence.
Several of the motifs present in the folklore of transformation suggest cultic procedures (e.g., transformation into an animal by putting on its skin). Cultic practices probably lie behind and lend credibility to many such tales.
In many societies, ritual change involves a transition period in which boundaries are broken and chaos rules, only to be overcome as order is restored. This is common in festivals in which the social order is temporarily suspended or reversed (as in the ancient Roman Saturnalia and the carnival celebrated in many Roman Catholic countries) and in rites of passage (such as initiation). Animal and plant transformations play a significant role in such ceremonies, both as negative symbols of chaos (e.g., return of the dead in animal form to mingle with the living; ritualized combats against the primordial dragon) and as positive symbols of the breaking through of bounds and the release of the forces of life (e.g., the presence in many of these ceremonies of young males dressed as animals who engage in sacred sexual intercourse). Prominent in such Saturnalian traditions are deities such as the Greek god Dionysus, who can assume vegetable, animal, or human forms at will, who is a god of sudden, dramatic epiphanies (manifestations) and license, and whose devotees, through orgiastic rituals, participate in his freedom to break all bounds in order to recover the boundless vitality and fecundity of primordial chaos. A new life for the cosmos, society, and the individual is supposedly obtained through the abolition of the order of the old.
Initiation ceremonies make use of transformations to a somewhat different end. The initiant receives new birth by the dying of his old self after a series of ordeals. Antagonists, frequently in masked animal form, torment him, and his “death” and rebirth are analogous to the hero’s successful fight against monsters. Alternatively, the culmination of initiation is frequently the narration of the myths of the ancestors and the vision of them. Masked men, in mixed animal and plant forms, appear to the initiant to remind him of his true origin as opposed to his biologic origin as a product of his parents. (Other ritual uses of masks achieve the same effect: the ritual transformation of the “actor” into the sacred animal, plant, or deity.)
Frequently, although the nomenclature for plants and animals is learned by a child from birth, the logic of the system is revealed only at initiation, at which point the initiant, as an adult, becomes responsible for the proper observance of all the boundaries required by his society (e.g., among the Senufo of Africa, 58 figurines are presented to the initiant in a carefully prescribed order that provides an inventory of the basic classes of animals, humans and their activities, and social distinctions).
Within many cultures there are religious specialists in the breaking of bounds. Perhaps the most widespread example is that of the shaman who is deemed able to journey at will to heaven or the underworld, mingling with both the gods and the dead. His journey occurs through magical flight (frequently in the form of a bird) with animal psychopomps (soul conductors) or guardians or by ascending the sacred tree that connects heaven and earth. The shaman may transform himself into an animal and know how to converse with animals. Another similar phenomenon is the existence of leopard societies in Africa. In these a practitioner is believed to be able to transform himself into an animal frequently considered to be his incarnate “second self.” Relationships of identity
Works on the supposedly primitive mentality published in the 19th and early 20th century usually presumed that so-called primitive peoples could not distinguish between plants, animals, and human individuals. This “hazy vision,” as it was often called, was believed to lie at the root of religious phenomena such as animism (belief that inanimate objects and natural phenomena have souls) and totemism. More recent studies have demonstrated the presence of complex taxonomies among peoples sometimes described as “primitive,” although they do not usually employ the criteria of a modern biologist. Relations of identity, when compared with the other forms of relationship already described, are comparatively rare, occurring most frequently in traditions about the soul. Relations of similarity are more common, usually in literary settings, such as plant or animal fables. The most common expression of identity relates the human soul to that of animals or plants. Soul-stuff