72 Darryl Jarvis, ‘Postmodernism: A Critical Typology’, Politics and Society, Vol. 26, No. 1 (March 1998), p. 98.
73 Alvin and Heidi Toffler, War and Anti War, Survival at the Dawn of the Information Age, London: Little Brown, 1993. See for a landmark text also Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society, New York: Basic Books, 1973. See for instance Charles Jencks, Post-Modernism, the New Classicism in Art and Architecture, London: Academy Editions, 1987 for a discussion of cultural aspects of postmodernism.
74 Jarvis, op. cit., p. 126.
75 Ibid., pp. 108, 114–15.
76 See for instance Jean-Paul Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984 [1979]; K.R. Dark, The Waves of Time, London: Pinter, 1998; and Paul Cilliers, Complexity and Postmodernism, London: Routledge, 1998, for similar observations.
77 Watson, op. cit., p. 668.
78 Lyotard, op. cit., p. xxiii. See also Gregor McLennan, ‘The Enlightenment Project Revisited’, in Hall, Held and McGrew, op. cit., pp. 328–30. Writers Boyd was familiar with, such as Geertz, Bronowski, Rifkin and Capra, shared these views.
79 McLennan, op. cit., pp. 332–3.
80 David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, cited in Kenneth Thompson, ‘Social Pluralism and Post-Modernity’, in Hall, Held and McGrew, op. cit., p. 261.
81 McLennan, op. cit., p. 333.
82 Cilliers, op. cit., p. 118.
83 For an introduction to Giddens, see McLennan, op. cit., pp. 342–7. McLennan positions Giddens as a happy compromise between Enlightenment and (the more extreme and nihilistic versions of) postmodernism.
84 Stefano Guzzini, ‘A Reconstruction of Conservativism in International Relations’, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 6(2) (2000), p. 152.
85 Andreas Bieler and Adam David Morton, ‘The Gordion Knot of Agency-Structure in International Relations: a neo-Gramscian Perspective’, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 7(1) (March 2001), p. 22.
86 Ibid., p. 27.
87 Giddens employs the terms reflexive modernization, radical-modernity, high-modernity and post-traditional society.
88 Anthony Giddens, ‘Living in a Post-Traditional Society’, in Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens, Scott Lash, Reflexive Modernization, Stanford: Sage, 1994, p. 87.
89 Ibid., pp. 86–8.
90 Ibid., p. 184.
91 Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990, p. 38.
92 Ibid., pp. 53–4.
93 See Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984, p. 284.
94 Guzzini, op. cit., p. 162.
95 See Kurt A. Richardson, Graham Mathieson and Paul Cilliers, ‘The Theory and Practice of Complexity Science: Epistemological Considerations for Military Operational Analysis’, SysteMexico, 1 (2000), pp. 19–20, and Cilliers, op. cit., p. 22, and Chapters 3 and 7.
96 Boyd, Strategic Game of ? and ?, p. 58.
97 Richardson, Mathieson and Cilliers, op. cit., p. 22.
98 Jarvis, op. cit., p. 105.
99 This is based on Steve Smith, ‘The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies: Conceptualizing Security in the Last Twenty Years’, in Stuart Croft and Terry Terriff (eds), Critical Reflections on Security and Change, London: Frank Cass, 2000; John Mearsheimer, ‘Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War’, International Security, Vol. 15, No. 1 (1990); and David Mutimer, ‘Beyond Strategy: Critical Thinking and the New Security Studies’, in Craig Snyder, Contemporary Security and Strategy, London: Macmillan, 1999.
100 Theo Farrell, ‘Constructivist Security Studies: Portrait of a Research Program’, International Studies Review, 4/1 (2002), p. 49. See also Alexander Wendt, ‘Constructing International Politics’, International Security, 20, No. 1 (1995); and Alexander Wendt, ‘Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics’, International Organization, 46/2, 1992, pp. 391–425. For a elaborate argument about the constructed nature, and the role of language and discourse, of US deterrence policy, see also Bradley Klein, Strategic Studies and World Order: The Global Politics of Deterrence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See also Ted Hopf, ‘The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory’, International Security, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Summer 1998), pp. 172–3.
101 Keith Krause and Michael Williams (eds), Critical Security Studies, Concepts and Cases, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1997, p. 49.
102 After Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 372. For a critical account see Dale C. Copeland, ‘The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism’, International Security, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Fall 2000), pp. 187–212.
103 Hopf, p. 177.
104 Wendt (1999), pp. 92–138.
105 Farrell, op. cit., p. 50.
106 Michael C. Desch, ‘Culture Clash, Assessing the Importance of Ideas in Security Studies’, International Security, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Summer 1998), pp. 142–3.
107 Ibid., p. 313.
108 Horgan, op. cit., p. 192.
109 Jay Forrester in L. Douglas Kiel and Euel Elliott (eds), Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences, Foundations and Applications, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996, p. 2. See for other examples of investigations on the relevance of chaos/complexity theory and social sciences for instance David Byrne, Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences, An Introduction, London: Routledge, 1998, and Paul Cilliers, Complexity and Postmodernity, London: Routledge, 1998; and Raymond Eve, Sara Horsfall and Mary Lee (eds), Chaos, Complexity and Sociology, Myths, Models and Theories, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997.
110 Brian Arthur, ‘Positive Feedback in the Economy’, Scientific American (February, 1990), 131–40.
111 See for instance William McNeil, ‘History and the Scientific Worldview’, History and Theory, Feb. 1998, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Feb. 1998), pp. 1–13; and ‘The Changing Shape of World History’, History and Theory, Vol. 34, No. 2 (May 1995), pp. 8–26. Coveney and Highfield (1995), op. cit., p. 338; James Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990, pp. 47, 58. Chapter 3 deals entirely with chaos and complexity theory. He likens the transformation of the interstate system to a Prigoginian bifurcation point, for instance. See also James Rosenau, ‘Many Damn Things Simultaneously: Complexity Theory and World Affairs’, in Davids and Czerwinski (1997), Chapter 4.
112 Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999, p. 90.
113 For an in-depth account of the working of tightly coupled and non-linear effects see in particular Robert Jervis, System Effects, Complexity in Political and Social Life, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.
114 Perrow, op. cit., pp. 93–4. See also Perrow, Complex Organizations; A Critical Essay (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1972; and Jos A. Rijpma, ‘Complexity, Tight coupling and Reliability: Connecting Normal Accidents Theory and High Reliability Theory’, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol. 5, No. 1 (March 1997), pp. 15–23.
115 Perrow, op. cit., pp. 331–4.
116 See Michael Lissack, ‘Complexity: the Science, its Vocabulary, and its Relation to Organizations’, Emergence, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1999), pp. 110–26.
117 Russ Marion and Josh Bacon, ‘Organizational Extinction and Complex Systems’, Emergence, 1(4) (1999), p. 76.
118 Ibid.
119 Susanne Kelly and May Ann Allison, The Complexity Advantage, How the Sciences Can Help Your Business Achieve Peak Performance, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999, p. 5.
120 Henry Coleman, ‘What Enables Self-Organizing Behavior in Businesses’, Emergence, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1999), p. 37.
121 Ibid., p. 40.
122 The literature on complexity theory and its relevance for the humanities, social sciences, and management theory is burgeoning. See for instance: Shona L. Brown and Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Competing on the Edge, Strategy as Structured Chaos, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998; Uri Merry, Coping With Uncertainty, Insights from the New Sciences of Chaos, Self Organization, and Complexity, West-port, CT: Praeger, 1995; Raymond A. Eve et al., Chaos, Complexity, and Sociology, London: Sage, 1997; Kathleen Eisenhardt and Donald N. Sull, ‘Strategy as Simple Rules’, Harvard Business Review, January 2001, pp. 107–16; Eric D. Beinhocker, ‘Robust Adaptive Strategies’, Sloan Management Review, Spring 1999, pp. 95–106; Michael Church, ‘Organizing Simply for Complexity: Beyond Metaphor Towards Theory’, Long Range Planning, Vol. 32, No. 4 (1999), pp. 425–40.