29 Ibid., p. 146.
30 Ibid., p. 144.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid., p. 143.
33 Ibid., p. 144.
34 Ibid., p. 152.
35 John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, ‘Emerging Modes of Conflict’, Comparative Strategy, Vol. 12, No. 4 (1993), p. 158.
36 John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, Swarming and the Future of Conflict, Santa Monica: RAND, 2000, pp. 21–3.
37 Ibid.
38 William S. Cohen, Report of the Quadrennial Defense Review, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, 1997, p. iv.
39 Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Vision 2010, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, 1997, p. 17. For a short description of JV2010 see Major-General Charles Link, ‘21st Century Armed Forces – Joint Vision 2010’, Joint Forces Quarterly, Autumn 1996, pp. 69–73.
40 Second Annual Report of the Army After Next Project, Headquarters US Army Training and Doctrine Command, Fort Monroe, Virginia, 7 December, 1998, pp. 11–13.
41 Cited in Christopher Coker, The Future of War, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004, p. 41.
42 David Alberts, Information Age Transformation, Getting to a 21st Century Military, Washington, D.C.: Department of Defence, CCRP publications, June 2002, p. 18.
43 Ibid., p. 7.
44 David Gompert, Richard Kugler and Martin Libicki, Mind the Gap, Promoting a Transatlantic Revolution in Military Affairs, Washington, D.C.: National Defence University Press, 1997, p. 4.
45 DoD Report to Congress on NCW, Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, CCRP publications, July 2001, p. vii.
46 David S. Alberts, John J. Gartska, and Frederick P. Stein, Network Centric Warfare, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, CCRP publications, 1999, p. 90.
47 DoD Report to Congress on NCW, pp. 3–5 and 3–1.
48 Ibid., pp. 3–9 and 3–10.
49 These ‘tenets’ appear in several NCW publications. See DOD Report to Congress, p. i, v, or 3–10.
50 Steven Metz, Armed Conflict in the 21st Century: The Information Revolution and Post-Modern Warfare, Carlisle Barracks: US Army Strategic Studies Institute, April 2000, p. 24.
51 Ibid., p. 87.
52 See for instance David Alberts and Richard E. Hayes, Command Arrangements for Peace Operations, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, CCRP publications, 1995; David Alberts, John J. Gartska, Richard E. Hayes and David T. Signori, Understanding Information Age Warfare, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, CCRP publications, 2001; David Alberts and Richard E. Hayes, Power to the Edge, Command and Control in the Information Age, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, CCRP publications, 2003; and Simon R. Atkinson and James Moffat, The Agile Organization, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, CCRP publications, 2005.
53 See for a good empirical survey, for instance, Robert E. Harkavy and Stephanie G. Neuman, Warfare in the Third World, New York: Palgrave, 2001.
54 This is the contested but nevertheless pertinent argument that historians John Keegan, Martin van Creveld and some others make. See for a concise discussion and refutation Christopher Bassford, ‘John Keegan and the Grand Tradition of Trashing Clause-witz’, War and History, Vol. 1, No. 3 (November 1994). For a recent study in military cultures which highlights the alternatives to the western instrumentalist view of war, see for instance Christopher Coker, Waging War Without Warriors, The Changing Culture of Military Conflict, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003.
55 Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 14, 15. Others too have described this type of conflict. See for instance Michael Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging, London: Vintage, 1994; and The Warrior’s Honor, London: Vintage, 1999; or Robert D. Kaplan, The Coming Anarchy, New York: Vintage, 2001.
56 Holst, op. cit., p. 18.
57 Mary Kaldor, New & Old Wars, Organized violence in a Global Era, Cambridge: Polity, 1999.
58 Mary Kaldor, ‘Introduction’, in Mary Kaldor (ed.), Global Insecurity, London: Cassell/Pinter, 2000, pp. 5–6.
59 Ibid.
60 Kaldor, (1999), op. cit., p. 9.
61 Martin van Creveld, The Transformation of War, New York: The Free Press, 1991, p. 221.
62 Ibid., p. 202.
63 Holsti, op. cit., pp. 36–9.
64 Kaldor (2000), op. cit., p. 6.
65 Ralph Peters, ‘The New Warrior Class’, Parameters, Summer 1994, p. 16. See also his book Fighting for the Future, Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1999.
66 Van Creveld, op. cit., pp. 142–3.
67 Ibid., p. 27.
68 See for instance Barry Posen, ‘The War for Kosovo; Serbia’s Political–Military Strategy’, International Security, Vol. 24, No. 4 (2000), pp. 39–84; I. Arreguin-Toft, ‘How the Weak Win; A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict’, International Security, Vol. 26, No. 1 (2001), pp. 93–128; R.H. Robert Scales, ‘Adaptive Enemies: Dealing With the Strategic Threat after 2010’, Strategic Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (1999), pp. 5–14; Steven Metz, ‘Strategic Asymmetry’, Military Review, July–August 2001, pp. 23–31, Stephen Biddle, ‘The Past as Prologue: Assessing Theories of Future Warfare’, Security Studies, 8, No. 1 (1998), pp. 1–74; Charles Dunlap, ‘Technology: Recomplicating Moral Life for the Nation’s Defenders’, Parameters, Autumn 1999, pp. 24–53.
69 Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui, Unrestricted Warfare, Beijing: 1999, p. 156. For an overview of the debate on this topic and some notable studies, see also my chapter titled ‘Asymmetric Warfare; Rediscovering the Essence of Strategy’, in John Olson (ed.), Asymmetric Warfare, Oslo: 2002.
70 See John Lynn, Battle, A History of Combat and Culture, Boulder, CO: 2003, West-view Press, in particular the Epilogue; Christopher Coker, Waging War Without Warriors, London: IISS, 2002; and Phillip Bobbit, The Shield of Achilles, London: Penguin, 2002, in particular Prologue and Chapters 10–13; and any of the articles by Ralph Peters, for instance ‘The New Warrior Class’, Parameters, Summer 1994, pp. 16–26. For a lengthy rebuttal and an argument for continuity, see Colin Gray, ‘Clausewitz, History, and the Future Strategic World’, paper for a National Intelligence Council Workshop on ‘The Changing Nature of Warfare’, Washington, D.C., 25 May 2004. Online. Available at: www.cia.gov/NKIC_2020 (accessed 3 March 2005).
71 See William Lind, Keith Nightengale, John Schmitt, Joseph Sutton, Gary Wilson, ‘The Changing Face of War: Into the Fourth Generation’, Marine Corps Gazette, Oct. 1989, pp. 22–6. See for a restatement in 1994 of this idea Thomas X. Hammes, ‘The Evolution of War: The Fourth Generation’, Marine Corps Gazette, September 1994. This is a much simplified rendering of the argument.
72 See for instance Grant T. Hammond, ‘The Paradoxes of War’, Joint Forces Quarterly, Spring 1994, pp. 7–16; Thomas X. Hammes, The Sling and the Stone, St Paul, MN: Zenith Press, 2004; Gary Wilson, Greg Wilcox and Chet Richards, Fourth Generation Warfare & OODA Loop Implications of the Iraqi Insurgency, presentation, www.belisarius.com, site (accessed 5 January 2005); or Myke Cole, ‘Confronting the 4th Generation Enemy’, Journal of Counterterrorism & Homeland Security, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 22–4; or Tony Corn, ‘World War IV As Fourth Generation Warfare’, Policy Review, January 2006, for a small sampling of this strand of thought. For a timely balanced critical review of the 4GW school of thought, see the August 2005 issue of Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 26, No. 2, dedicated to this topic.
73 See Miroslav Nincic and Joseph Lepgold (ed.), Being Useful, Policy Relevance and International Relations Theory, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998, pp. 25–6.