Thus, Assumption 3 falls! It would hold true if the uni verse were static, but not if it is expanding. Each succeed ing shell in an expanding universe delivers less light than the one within because its content of galaxies is succes sively farther from us; is subjected to a successively greater red shift; and falls short, more and more, of the expected radiant energy it might deliver.
And because Assumption 3 fails, we receive only a finite amount of energy from the universe and the night sky is black.
According to the most popular models of the universe, this expansion will always continue. It may continue with out the production of new galaxies so that, eventually, billions of years hence, our Galaxy (plus a few of its neighbors, which together make up the "local cluster" of galaxies) will seem alone in the universe. AU the other galaxies will have receded too far to detect. Or new galaxies may continuously form so that, the universe will always seem full of galaxies, despite its expansion. Either way, however, expansion will continue and the night sky will remain black.
There is another suggestion, however, that the universe oscillates; that -the expansion will gradually slow down until the universe comes to a moment of static pause, then begins to contract again, faster and faster, till it tightens at last into a small sphere that explodes and brings about a new expansion.
If so, then as the expansion slows the diinming effect of the red shift will diminish and the night sky will slowly brighten. By the time the universe is static the sky will be uniformly star-brigbt as Olbers' paradox required. Then, once the universe starts contracting, there will be a "violet shift" and the energy delivered will increase so that the sky will become far brighter and still brighter.
This will be true not only for the Earth (if it still existed in the far future of a contracting universe) but for any body of any sort in the universe. In a static or, worse still, a contracting universe there could, by Olbers' paradox, be no cold bodies, no solid bodies. There would be uniform high temperatures everywhere-in the millions of degrees, I suspect-and life simply could not exist.
So I get back to my earlier statement. The reason there is life on Earth, or anywhere in the universe, is simply that the'distant galaxies are moving away from us.
In fact, now that we know the ins and outs of Olbers' paradox, might we, do you suppose, be able to work out the recession of the distant galaxies as a necessary conse quence of the blackness of the night sky? Maybe we could amend the famous statement of the French philosopher Rene Descartes.
He said, "I think, therefore I am!"
And we could add: "I am, therefore the universe ex pandsl"
10. A Galaxy At A Time
Four or five'vears ago there was a small fire at a school two blocks from my house. It wasn't much of a fire, really, producing smoke and damaging some rooms in the base ment, but nothing more. What's more, it was outside school hours so that no lives were in danger.
Nevertheless, as soon as the first piece of fire apparatus was on the scene the audience had begun to gather. Every idiot in town and half the idiots from the various con tiguous towns came racing down to see the fire. They came by auto and by oxcart, on bicycle and on foot. They came with girl friends on their arms, with aged parents on their shoulders, and with infants at the breast.
They parked all the streets solid for miles around and after the first fire engine had come on the scene nothing more could have been added to it except by helicopter.
Apparently this happens every time. At every disaster, big or small, the two-legged ghouls gather and line up shoulder to shoulder and chest to back. They do this, it seems, for two purposes: a) to stare goggle-eyed and slack-jawed at destruction and misery, and b) to prevent the approach of the proper authorities who are attempting to safeguard life and property.
Naturally, I wasn't one of those who rushed to see the fire and I felt very self-righteously noble about it. How ever (since we are all friends), I will confess that this is not necessarily because I am free of the destructive in stinct. It's just that a messy little fire in a basement isn't my idea of destruction; or a good, roaring blaze at the munitions dump, either.
If a star were to blow up, then we might have some thing.
Come to think of it, my instinct for destruction must be well developed after all, or I wouldn't find myself so fascinated by the subject of supernovas, those colossal stellar explosions.
Yet in thinking of them, I have, it turns out, been a piker. Here I've been assuming for years that a supernova was the grandest spectacle the universe had to offer (pro vided you were standing several dozen light-years away) but, thanks to certain 1963 findings, it turns out that a supemova taken by itself is not much more than a two inch firecracker.
This realization arose out of radio astronomy. Since World War 11, astronomers have been picking up micro wave (very short radio-wave) radiation from various parts of the sky, and have found that some of it comes from our own neighborhood. The Sun itself is a radio source and so are Jupiter and Venus.
The radio sources of the Solar System, however, are virtually insignificant. We would never spot them if we weren't right here with them. To pick up radio waves across the vastness of stellar distances we need something better. For instance, one radio source from beyond the Solar System is the Crab Nebula. Even after its radio waves have been diluted by spreading out for five thousand light-years before reaching us, we can still pick up what remams and impinges upon our instruments. But then the Crab Nebula represents the remains of a supernova that blew itself to kingdom come-the first light of the explo sion reaching the Earth about 900 years ago.
But a great number of radio sources lie outside our Galaxy altogether and are millions and even billions of light-years distant. Still their radio-wave emanations can be detected and so they must represent energy sources that shrink mere supemovas to virtually nothing.
For instance, one particularly strong source turned out, on investigation, to arise from a galaxy 200,000,000 light years away. Once the large telescopes zeroed in on that galaxy it turned out to be distorted in shape. After closer study it became quite clear that it was not a galaxy at all, but two galaxies in the process of collision.
When two galaxies collide like that, there is little likeli hood of actual collisions between stars (which are too small and too widely spaced). However, if the galaxies possess clouds of dust (and many galaxies, including our own, do), these clouds will collide and the turbulence of the collision will set up radio-wave emission, as does the turbulence (in order of decreasing intensity) of the gases of the Crab Nebula, of our Sun, of the atmosphere of Jupiter, and of the atmosphere of Venus.
But as more and more radio sources were detected and pinpointed, the number found among the far-distant',ga laxies seemed impossibly high. There might be occasional collisions among galaxies but it seemed most unlikely that there could be enough collisions to account for all those radio sources.
Was there any other possible explanation? What was needed was some cataclysm just as vast and intense as that represented by a pair of colliding galaxies, but one that involved a single gallaxy. Once freed from the neces sity of supposing collisions we can explain any number of radio sources.
But what can a single galaxy do alone, without the help of a sister galaxy?
Well, it can explode.
But how? A galaxy isn't really a single object. It is simply a loose aggregate of up to a couple of hundred billion stars. These stars can explode individually, but how can we have an explosion of a whole galaxy at a time?