15 One influential voice for orthogenesis: Lester, 1995.
16 “the jack-in-office, the pompous official …”: Quoted in Lester, 1995, p. 59.
16 For biologists of Lankester’s day: Cox, 1994.
17 “Let the parasitic life once be secured …”: Lankester, 1890, p. 27.
17 Drummond declared that parasitism “is one of the gravest crimes …”: Quoted from Drummond, 1883, p. 319.
18 “All those indiviudals who have secured a hasty wealth …”: Quoted from Drummond, 1883, p. 350.
18 “In the struggle for daily bread …”: Quoted from Hitler, 1971, p. 285.
18 “only and always a parasite in the body of other peoples.…”: Quoted from Hitler, 1971, p. 304.
19 To Marx and Lenin: See Brennan, 1995.
19 “With the refinement of innate cruelty …”: Quoted from Brown, 1898, pp. 162–163.
19 “Freedom, bondage, and the welfare state”: Stunkard, 1955.
21 “When we use the terms ‘higher and lower’ …”: Quoted from Lorenz, 1989, p. 41.
22 “A retrogression of specific human characteristics …”: Lorenz, 1989, p. 45.
22 “I believe that I have given …”: Quoted from Steenstrup, 1845, p. 8.
2. Terra Incognita
24 Consider the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni: This description is drawn mainly from Basch, 1991.
27 This tiny nematode comes our way: Campbell, 1983.
29 Sukhdeo ignored the advice: Sukhdeo summarizes his work in Sukhdeo, 1997.
31 In tropical countries, between 30 and 90 percent of cattle carry them: Spithill and Dalton, 1998.
36 Each of these copepods looks so different: For an overview of parasitic copepods, see Benz, in preparation.
36 As they feed, tapeworms grow at a spectacular rate: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
37 When we eat, peristalsis immediately ripples through our intestines: See Sukhdeo, 1997.
37 The intestines are also home to hookworms: See Hotez et al., 1995; Hotez and Prichard, 1995.
38 A biotechnology company has isolated these molecules: For information on the company’s work, see its web site: www.corvas.com.
40 To do so, they set down hooks on the vessel walclass="underline" Naitza et al., 1998.
41 Fifteen seconds after the blast: Only one species of Plasmodium invades red blood cells this way: P. falciparum, which causes the most dangerous kind of malaria.
41 The core of hemoglobin: Ginsburg et al., 1999.
42 In other words, Plasmodium has to transform these mere corpuscles: This description of how Plasmodium invades and rebuilds blood cells is drawn from Foley and Tilley, 1995, 1998; Sinden 1985.
42 In either case, the parasitized red blood cell can start dragging: Lauer et al., 1997.
43 Trichinella is also a biological renovator: See Capo et al., 1998; Despommier, 1990; Polvere et al., 1997.
44 Plants are even hosts to parasitic plants: See Press and Graves, 1995; Stewart and Press, 1990.
45 But many plant-eating insects spend: Thompson, 1994.
45 nematodes that live in plant roots: For reviews of root nematodes, see Bird, 1996; Niebel, et al.; 1994.
47 Bigger hosts tend to have more species of parasites in them: Poulin, 1995.
47 On the gills of a single fish: Rhode, 1994. For other examples of parasite niches, see Roberts and Janovy, 2000; Kennedy and Guegan, 1996.
47 When parasitologists crack open the shells of snails: Kuris and Lafferty, 1994.
48 The wasp Copidosoma floridanum: Strand and Grbic, 1997.
50 The adult filarial worms live in the lymph channels: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
50 The fleas on a female rabbit’s skin: Hart, 1994.
51 Dig a few feet down into the hard summer dirt: For details of Pseudodiplorchis, see Tinsley, 1990; Tinsley, 1995, and the references therein.
3. The Thirty Years’ War
55 A man came one day to the Royal Perth Hospitaclass="underline" Harris et al., 1984.
57 But here, at any rate, is a brief survey: Janeway and Travers, 1994.
60 In September 1909, a strong young man: Ross and Thomson, 1910.
62 “a struggle between the defensive powers of the infected body …”: Quoted from Ross and Thomson, 1910, p. 408.
62 They play an exhausting game of bait-and-switch: See Barry, 1997; Borst et al., 1997.
64 Because these latches can be recognized by the immune system: Borst et al., 1995.
65 Each species causes a disease of its own: Bloom, 1979.
65 Leishmania doesn’t have to muscle its way: For details of Leishmania’s invasion, see Bogdan and Rollinghoff, 1999; Locksley and Reiner, 1995.
67 Few people know about Toxoplasma: For Toxoplasma’s evasions, see Sher, 1995.
70 One remarkable example is the tapeworm: White et al., 1997.
72 You can see their disguise at work in a simple experiment: Damian, 1987.
73 a paradox on the shores of Lake Victoria: Karanja et al., 1997.
74 Under the spell of the eggs: Leptak and McKerrow, 1997.
76 The parasite survives thanks to millions of viruses: For reviews of Cotesia congregata and its viruses, see Beckage, 1997, 1998; Dushay and Beckage, 1993; Lavine and Beckage, 1996.
4. A Precise Horror
79 biologists of his day just didn’t know much: My description of Sacculina is drawn from Collis and Walker, 1994; DeVries et al., 1989; Gilbert et al., 1997; Glenner and Høeg, 1995; Glenner et al., 1989; Glenner et al., 2000; Hartnoll, 1967; Høeg, 1985a, 1985b, 1987, 1992, 1995; Lutzen and Høeg, 1995; O’Brien and Van Wyk, 1986; O’Brien and Skinner, 1990; Raibaut and Trilles, 1993.
82 This puppetry takes different forms: For general reviews of host manipulation, see Moore, 1995; Moore and Gotelli, 1996; Poulin, 1994.
82 Rather than just passively soak up the food: Thompson, 1993.
83 A fungus called Puccinia: Roy, 1993.
84 The wasps seem to be responsible for the anorexia: Adamo, 1998.
84 Another species of wasp goes even further: Brodeur and Vet, 1994.
84 There are parasitic nematodes: Vance, 1996.
86 A fungus that lives inside house flies: Krasnoff et al., 1995.
87 Along the coasts of Delaware lives a fluke: Curtis, 1987, 1990.
87 Known as Dicrocoelium dendriticum: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
88 The guinea worm spends its early life: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
90 When a mosquito lands on your arm: For the challenges mosquitoes face, and the way Plasmodium manipulates them, see Day and Edman, 1983; James and Rossignol, 1991; Koella, 1999; Koella et al., 1998b; Ribeiro, 1995.
90 A mosquito with ookinetes in it: Anderson et al., 1999.
91 A fluke called Leucochloridium: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
91 Some species of tapeworms live in the guts of: LoBue and Bell, 1993.
91 They can also alter the behavior: Tierney et al., 1993.
92 A small crustacean named: Helluy and Holmes, 1989.
92 Toxoplasma, the protozoan lodged: Berdoy et al., 2000.
95 Moore built chambers out of Pyrex pie plates: Moore, 1983.
97 Their hunger pushes the sticklebacks to take more risks: Milinski, 1990.
97 Biologists have pulled out the neurons of Gammarus: Helluy and Holmes, 1989; Maynard et al., 1996.
99 Beetles are lured to egg-bearing droppings: Evans et al., 1992.
99 If you trap the fragrance of infected dung: Evans et al., 1998.
99 the tapeworm then uses more chemicals: Hurd, 1998; Webb and Hurd, 1999.