100 Put it on a pile of flour: Robb and Reid, 1996.
100 But once the tapeworm reaches maturity: Blankespoor et al., 1997.
104 oceans are swarming with viruses: Fuhrman, 1999.
104 For decades, ecologists who worked on the Serengeti: Dobson, 1995.
106 In fact, if you were to get rid of the fluke: Lafferty, 1993a.
108 The results were even more stark: Lafferty describes his experiments in Lafferty, 1997a; Lafferty and Morris, 1996.
109 But why would birds: Lafferty models the trade-offs for hosts like these birds in Lafferty, 1992.
109 ecologist Greta Aeby has been scuba diving: Aeby, 1992, 1998.
111 they’ve contained fifteen quarts of fluid: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
111 The thinning of the herd is an illusion: Messier et al., 1989; Rau and Caron, 1979.
115 It makes the corpse of its host a sexual magnet: Møller, 1993.
115 “I wonder why the titans …”: Quoted from Heinlein, 1990, p. 205.
116 delusional parasitosis: Wykoff, 1987.
5. The Great Step Inward
122 The closest match he found: For the discovery of the apicoplast and its relationship with chloroplasts, see Kohler et al., 1997, and the references therein.
125 the eukaryotes with their DNA: Some of the most primitive eukaryotes such as Giardia are missing mitochondria, but recent gene sequencing has suggested that they originally had the organelle and lost it later in their evolution. (See, for instance, Hashimoto et al., 1998.) These results point to the first eukaryotes as having mitochondria.
125 the dawn of the age of eukaryotes: Knoll and Carroll, 1999.
126 Parasitism is any arrangement: Dawkins, 1982.
127 genetic parasites: Sherratt, 1995.
127 Some of them steal genes from their host: Xiong and Eickbush, 1990.
127 How is it, for instance, that a freshwater: Robertson, 1997.
128 Eventually the coalition of genes got organized: For this promiscuous vision of the beginning of life, see Woese, 1998.
128 It was probably at this time that life began to diverge: Katz, 1998.
129 If the cost of trying to fight off the invasion: Law, 1998.
129 But biologists now recognize: Doolittle, 2000.
129 Among the fully sequenced species is Rickettsia: Muller and Martin, 1999.
130 This billion-year-old drama: Roos et al., 1999.
131 David Roos and his colleagues have speculated: Waller et al., 1998.
131 It wasn’t until about 700 million years ago: Knoll and Carroll, 1999.
131 Soon afterward, animals came on shore: Zimmer, 1998.
131 at least fifty times other lineages of animals followed suit: Poulin, 1998.
133 Attacking people is not how the candiru makes a living: Kelley and Atz, 1964.
133 There you find nests of the ant Tetramorium: Holldobler and Wilson, 1990.
134 Some butterflies, for example, can trick ants: Akino et al., 1999.
135 A single cuckoo starts life much bigger than a warbler: Kilner et al., 1999.
136 The fetus faces the same troubles: Villereal, 1997.
136 This conflict plays out: Pennisi, 1998.
141 Parasites, in other words, have evolutionary stories: Brooks explains how to use this method in Brooks and McLennan, 1993.
142 Tapeworms probably first evolved: Hoberg et al., 1999a.
144 The thorn forests of Bolivia are home to marsupials: For their link to Australian mammals and parasites, see Gardner and Campbell, 1992.
145 Pterosaurs began sharing the sky with birds: Hoberg et al., 1999b.
146 The scenario that reconciles these facts best: Brooks, 1992.
147 The closest relatives to human tapeworms: Hoberg et al., 2000.
148 Suzanne Sukhdeo has sorted through the close relatives: Sukhdeo et al., 1997.
148 Parasitologists have compared species of nematodes: Read and Skorping, 1995.
149 “boring by-product.”: Dawkins, 1990.
149 These are galls: For an overview of galls, see Shorthouse and Roh-fritsch, 1992.
149 Warren Abrahamson of Bucknell University: Abrahamson, 1997.
151 A German evolutionary biologist named Dieter Ebert: Ebert, 1994.
152 And quite often, that optimal virulence: Ebert and Herre, 1996.
154 The biologist Edward Herre studied fig wasps: Herre, 1993.
155 The laws of virulence are also built: Ewald, 1995.
6. Evolution from Within
157 “We behold the face of nature …”: Quoted from Darwin, 1857, p. 116.
158 “Good, when young, bad for the past 33 years.”: Quoted in Adler, 1997.
158 he had Chagas disease: Adler, 1989.
158 Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi: Bastien, 1998.
158 Ticks and lice may only live on their host’s skin: Mooring and Hart, 1992.
159 This sort of monitoring still goes on today: Bingham, 1997.
160 A. R. Kraaijeveld of the Imperial College in England: Kraaijeveld et al., 1998.
163 In only fifty generations: Lively, 1996.
167 It didn’t take Lively long to see a clear pattern: Lively, 1987.
167 In a single lake, they could see parasites: Fox et al., 1996.
168 In Nigeria there lives another snaiclass="underline" Schrag et al., 1994a, 1994b.
168 The most unexpected support for the Red Queen’s effect: Gemmill et al., 1997.
169 It gets into the skin of the rat: Koga et al., 1999.
169 In other words, Strongyloides can complete its life cycle: Viney, 1999.
170 For five years he and another of his postdoctoral students: Dybdahl and Lively, 1998.
171 “I should advise you to walk the other way.”: This parallel between science and literature was nicely observed in Lythgoe and Read, 1998.
172 Hamilton and Zuk gathered together reports: Hamilton and Zuk, 1982.
173 In many of the tests—especially the lab experiments: Clayton, 1991.
173 Zuk studied red jungle fowl from Southeast Asia: Zuk et al., 1995.
173 In a more elaborate study, Swedish scientists: Schantz et al., 1996.
173 That certainly seems to be what’s going on with the fish: Taylor et al., 1998.
174 Immune studies give the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis: See Møller, 1999.
175 Mice, for example, can smell the urine: Kavaliers and Colwell, 1995a, 1995b.
175 “The scent of a male mouse …”: Penn and Potts, 1998.
175 Bees may be having so much sex: Baer and Schmid-Hempel, 1999.
176 Many insects are shaped expressly to fend off parasites: Gross, 1993.
176 Thousands of species of ants: Feener and Brown, 1997.
178 Mammals are continually assaulted by parasites: The effects of parasites on mammal herds can be found in Hart, 1994, 1997; Hart and Hart, 1994; Hart et al., 1992; Mooring and Hart, 1992.
179 the howler monkeys of Central America: Personal communication, Dr. Katherine Milton.
180 Consider leaf-rolling caterpillars: Caveney et al., 1998.
180 They keep their distance because the manure: Hart, 1997.
181 The odor is like perfume: DeMoraes et al., 1998.
182 Some will just stop eating: Kyriazakis et al., 1998.
182 The woolly bears, in other words: Karban and English-Loeb, 1997.
182 That still gives the snails a month: Minchella, 1985.
183 If a fluke gets into a snail that’s still sexually immature: Lafferty, 1993b.
183 When the fruit flies of the Sonoran desert are attacked by parasites: Polak and Starmer, 1998.
183 Lizards are also tormented by mites of their own: Sorci and Clobert, 1995.
184 Worker bumblebees spend their days flying: Muller and Schmid-Hempel, 1993.
184 When a lungworm drops to the ground in the manure: Robinson, 1962.