186 A new species is born out of isolation: For an accessible overview of speciation, see Weiner, 1994.
186 A parasite that prefers many different hosts: Kawecki, 1998.
187 Lineages of parasites may be able to resist extinction: Bush and Kennedy, 1994.
187 This local struggle: Thompson, 1998.
187 And as these populations of hosts fight off: Thompson, 1994.
188 An interrupted gene may suddenly become able: MacDonald, 1995.
188 The genes that make the receptors: Roth and Craig, 1998.
188 And once a genetic parasite has established itself: DeBerardinis et al., 1998.
189 A bacterium called Wolbachia: See Hurst, 1993; Hurst et al., 1999; Werren, 1998.
7. The Two-Legged Host
192 It’s been worked out best for Trichinella: Bell, 1998.
194 A blood fluke that swam from snails to rats: Despres et al., 1992.
194 The trypanosomes humans had left behind: Stevens and Gibson, 1999.
195 In those early days, parasites did best: Hill et al., 1994.
195 By spreading cats and rats around most of the world: Cox, 1994.
195 Along the Andes, the houses that Incas built: Bastien, 1998.
196 The mosquitoes that carry malaria: Bruce-Chwatt and de Zulueta, 1980.
196 One sort of mutation in the beta chain: Friedman and Trager, 1981.
197 Called ovalocytosis, this disorder: Jarolim et al., 1991; Schofield et al., 1992.
197 One of the few clear signs from antiquity: Senok et al., 1997.
198 And archaeologists in Israel have found bones: Hershokovitz and Edelson, 1991.
199 These mild cases of malaria immunize children: Miller, 1996.
199 In 1990, a biologist named Bobbi Low: Low, 1990.
199 The signs might not be visible either: Penn and Potts, 1998.
200 According to Robin Dunbar: Dunbar, 1996.
201 Sick chimps will sometimes search for strange food: Huffman, 1997.
203 “For the first time it is economically feasible for nations …”: Quoted from Russell, 1955, p. 158.
203 There are more human intestinal worms than humans: These statistics come from Crompton, 1999.
203 Parasites like hookworm and whipworm: Nokes et al., 1992.
204 the disability-adjusted life year: Chan, 1997.
205 Consider the hideous case of guinea worms: Crompton, 1999; Peries and Cairncross, 1997.
205 Seventeen million people carry the parasite: Crompton, 1999.
206 If a person with river blindness takes the drug: Meredith and Dull, 1998.
207 When giant dams are built: Roberts and Janovy, 2000.
207 Chloroquine cures malaria: Ginsburg et al., 1999.
207 Now huge parts of the globe harbor malaria: The spread of resistant malaria is traced in Su et al., 1997.
209 The World Health Organization organized: Wilson and Coulson, 1998.
209 In 1998, human trials began: Shi et al., 1999.
211 These flukes can sense how many: Haseeb et al., 1998.
211 The vaccine could then conceivably cause more harm: Good et al., 1998.
211 Scientists have found that if they give an extra dose: Wynn et al., 1995.
212 If people were vaccinated so that their immune system: Haseeb et al., 1998.
212 One of the architects of the theory of virulence: Ewald, 1994.
214 In 1997, scientists at the University of Iowa: Newman, 1999.
214 Parasite-free living may also be responsible: Bell, 1996; Lynch et al., 1998.
8. How to Live in a Parasitic World
216 “Whenever the earth changed its form …”: Quoted from Farley, 1977, p. 38.
218 Scientists first conceived of using parasites: Two reviews of biological control—both critical—are Howarth, 1991; and Simberloff and Stiling, 1996.
220 It may, for example, have saved much of Africa: The success of the cassava mealybug control program is reviewed in Herren and Neuenschwander, 1991.
231 The forests of Hawaii represent one: Howarth, 1991.
232 In the United States, for example: Boettner, 2000.
233 But if you’re trying to use parasites in the ocean: Lafferty discusses the threat and promise of marine biological control in Lafferty and Kuris, 1996.
238 Ticks can also tamper with our blood: Durden and Keirans, 1996.
239 Only in 1999 did a biologist isolate: Morell, 1999.
240 An ecosystem is a bit like a person: For an introduction to ecosystem health, see Costanza et al., 1992.
241 Parasites are actually a sign: For an overview of parasites and ecological health, see Lafferty, 1997b.
241 Canadian ecologists added lime: Marcogliese and Cone, 1997.
242 Tapeworms may carry hundreds of times: Sures et al., 1999.
243 When ranchers overgraze their cattle and sheep: Grenfell, 1992.
244 a concept, called Gaia, which some scientists embrace: Volk, 1998.
Further Reading and Selected Bibliography
The parasitologist Robert Desowitz has written several popular books about parasites from a more medical perspective than this book uses (see Desowitz, 1983; Desowitz, 1991; Desowitz, 1997). For a wry, thorough textbook of parasitology (the kind that comes with an epigraph from Hunter Thompson), see Roberts and Janovy, 2000. A concise look at the evolution and ecology of parasites can be found in Poulin, 1998. Mark Ridley talks about the effects of sexual selection, including the Red Queen, in a book of the same name (Ridley, 1993).
Abrahamson, W. G. 1997. Evolutionary ecology across three trophic levels: Goldenrods, gallmakers, and natural enemies; Monographs in population biology. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Adamo, S. A. 1998. Feeding suppression in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta: costs and benefits to the parasitic wasps Cotesia congregata. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:1634–1640.
Adler, C. 1989. Darwin’s illness. Israeli Journal of Medical Science 25:218–221.
Adler, J. 1997. The dueling diagnoses of Darwin. Journal of the American Medical Association 277:1275.
Aeby, G. S. 1992. The potential effect the ability of a coral intermediate host to regenerate has had on the evolution of its association of a marine parasite. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 2:809–815.
______. 1998. A digenean metacercaria from the reef coral, Porites compressa, experimentally identified as Podocotyloides stenometra. Journal of Parasitology 84:1259–1261.
Akino, T., J. J. Knapp, J. A. Thomas, and G. W. Elmes. 1999. Chemical mimicry and host specificity in the butterfly Maculinea rebeli, a social parasite of Myrmica ant colonies. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266:1419–1426.
Anderson, R. A., J. C. Koella, and H. Hurd. 1999. The effect of Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis infection on the feeding persistence of Anopheles stephensi Liston throughout the sporogonic cycle. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 266:1729–1734.
Baer, B., and P. Schmid-Hempel. 1999. Experimental variation in polyandry affects parasite loads and fitness in a bumble-bee. Nature 397:151–154.
Barry, J. D. 1997. The biology of antigenic variation in African trypanosomes. In Trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis: Biology and control, edited by G. Hide, J. C. Mottram, G. H. Coombs, and P. Holmes. New York: CAB International.
Basch, P. F. 1991. Schistosomes: Development, reproduction, and host relations. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bastien, J. W. 1998. The kiss of death: Chagas’ disease in the Americas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Beckage, N. E. 1997. The parasitic wasp’s secret weapon. Scientific American 277(5):82–87.
______. 1998. Parasitoids and polydnaviruses. BioScience 48(4):305–311.
Bell, R. G. 1996. IgE allergies and helminth parasites: A new perspective on an old conundrum. Immunology and Cell Biology 74:337– 345.